Chapter 2 Stress and Strain

-- Axial Loading
Statics – deals with undeformable bodies (Rigid bodies)
Mechanics of Materials – deals with deformable bodies
-- Need to know the deformation of a boy under
various stress/strain state
-- Allowing us to computer forces for statically
indeterminate problems.
The following subjects will be discussed:
 Stress-Strain Diagrams
 Modulus of Elasticity
 Brittle vs Ductile Fracture
 Elastic vs Plastic Deformation
 Bulk Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity

 Isotropic vs Orthotropic Properties

 Stress Concentrations
 Residual Stresses
 2.2 Normal Strain under Axial Loading


  normal strain 
L

For variable cross-sectional area A,

strain at Point Q is:

 d 
  lim 
x  0 x dx

The normal Strain is dimensionless.

2.3 Stress-Strain Diagram
Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture
Some Important Concepts and Terminology:

1. Elastic Modulus
2. Yield Strength – lower and upper Y.S. -- y

0.2% Yield Strength

3. Ultimate Strength, ut

4. Breaking Strength or Fracture Strength

5. Necking

6. Reduction in Area

7. Toughness – the area under the - curve

8. Percent Elongation
9. Proportional Limit
 2.3 Stress-Strain Diagram

LB  Lo
Percent elongation = 100%
Lo
A0  AB
Percent reduction in area = 100%
Ao
 2.4 True Stress and True Strain

Eng. Stress = P/Ao True Stress = P/A

Ao = original area A = instantaneous area


Eng. Strain = True Strain =  t    ( L / L)
Lo
Lo = original length L = instantaneous length

dL
L L
t    n (2.3)
Lo L Lo
 2.5 Hooke's Law: Modulus of Elasticity

  E (2.4)

Where E = modulus of elasticity or Young’s

modulusproperties do not vary with

Isotropic = material

Anisotropic = material properties vary with direction or

direction or orientation.

E.g.: metals E.g.: wood, composites

orientation.
2.6 Elastic Versus Plastic Behavior of a Material

2
Some Important Concepts:

1. Recoverable Strain
2. Permanent Strain – Plastic Strain
3. Creep

4. Bauschinger Effect: the early yielding behavior in the

compressive loading
 2.7 Repeated Loadings: Fatigue

Fatigue failure generally occurs at a stress level that is much

lower than y
The  -N curve = stress vs life curve

The Endurance Limit = the stress for which fatigue failure

does not occur.
 2.8 Deformations of Members under Axial Loading

  E (2.4)

 P
   (2.5)
E AE
  L (2.6)

PL
  (For Homogeneous rods)
AE
Pi Li
  
i Ai E i
(For various-section rods)

Pdx
d    dx  (For variable cross-section rods)
AE
P
 L Pdx

(2.9)
 
o AE

PL
 B/ A  B  A  (2.10)
AE
 2.9 Statically Indeterminate Problems

A. Statically Determinate Problems:

-- Problems that can be solved by Statics, i.e. F = 0
and M = 0 & the FBD

B. Statically Indeterminate Problems:

-- Problems that cannot be solved by Statics
-- The number of unknowns > the number of equations
-- Must involve “deformation”

Example 2.02:
Example 2.02

1   2
Superposition Method for Statically
Indeterminate Problems

1. Designate one support as redundant support

2. Remove the support from the structure & treat it as

an unknown load.
3. Superpose the displacement

Example 2.04
Example 2.04
  L  R  0
2.10 Problems Involving Temperature Changes

 T   ( T ) L 2(.21)

 = coefficient of thermal
expansion

T + P = 0

 T  T  T   ( T ) L
PL
P 
AE
PL
   T   P   ( T ) L  0
AE
Therefore:

P   AE ( T )

P
    E ( T )
A
2.11 Poisson 's Ratio

x x / E

lateral strain
  Poisson ' s Ratio  
axial strain
y z
   
x x

 
  X
    X

E E
x y z
2.12 Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hooke's Law

 Cubic  rectangular parallelepiped

 Principle of Superposition:
-- The combined effect =  (individual effect)

Binding assumptions:
1. Each effect is linear
2. The deformation is small and does not
change the overall condition of the body.
2.12 Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hooke's Law

Generalized Hooke’s Law

 x  y  z
x    
E E E
 x  y  z
y     (2.28)
E E E
 x  y  z
z    
E E E

Homogeneous Material -- has identical properties at all points.

Isotropic Material -- material properties do not vary with direction

or orientation.
2.13 Dilation: Bulk Modulus
Original volume = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1

Under the multiaxial stress: x, y, z

The new volume =   (1   x )(1   y )(1   z )

Neglecting the high order terms yields:

 1 x   y  z

e  the hange of olume    1  1   x   y   z  1

e   x   y  z ( 2.30)
 e = dilation = volume strain = change in volume/unit volume

Eq. (2.28)  Eq. (2-30)

 X  y  z 2 ( X   y   z )
e   (2.31)
E E

1  2
e ( X   y   z )
E
Special case: hydrostatic pressure -- x, y, z = p
3(1  2 ) E
e  p Define:   (2.33)
E 3(1  2 )
p
e  (2.33)

 = bulk modulus = modulus of compression +
 E
Since  = positive,

3(1  2 )

(1 - 2) > 0 1>2 <½

Therefore, 0 <  < ½

3 E
= 0 e 
E
p 
3
3(1  2 )   e0
=½ e 
E
p 0
-- Perfectly incompressible materials
2.14 Shearing Strain

If shear stresses are present

Shear Strain =  xy (In radians)

 xy  G  xy (2.36)

 yz  G  yz  zx  G  zx (2.37)
The Generalized Hooke’s Law:

 X  y  z
x    
E E E
 X  y  z
y    
E E E
 X  y  z
z    
E E E

 xy  yz  zx
 xy   yz   zx 
G G G
2.18 Further Discussion of Deformation under Axial Loading:
Relation Among E, , and G

E
1
2G

E
G
2(1   )
Saint-Venant’s Principle:
-- the localized effects caused by any load acting on the
body will dissipate or smooth out within region
that are sufficiently removed form the location of
he load.
2.16 Stress-Strain Relationships for Fiber-Reinforced
Composite Materials

-- orthotropic materials

y z
 xy   and  xz  
x x

 X  xy y  zx z
x    
Ex Ey Ez
 xy X  y  zx z
y    
Ex Ey Ez
 xy X  yz y  z
z    
Ex Ey Ez
 xy  yx  yz  zy  zx  xz
  
E x E y E y Ez Ez E x

 xy  yz  zx
 xy   yz   zx 
G G G
2.17 Stress and Strain Distribution Under Axial Loading:
Saint-Venant's Principle

If the stress distribution is uniform:

P
 y  ( y )ave 
A

In reality:
2.18 Stress Concentrations
-- Stress raiser at locations where geometric discontinuity occurs

 max
K = Stress Concentration Factor
 ave
2.19 Plastic Deformation

Elastic Deformation  Plastic Deformation

Elastoplastic behavior


y Y C
Rupture


A D
For max < Y
 max  max
K  ave 
 ave K
 max A
P   ave A 
K

For max = Y

Y A
PY 
K

For ave = Y

PU   Y A

PU
PY 
K
2.20 Residual Stresses

After the applied load is removed, some

stresses may still remain inside the material
 Residual Stresses