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Patigdas
extremely small
impossible to be seen with our naked eyes
1. nucleus
a.) protons
-positively charged
-defines atomic number
define atomic mass
b.) neutrons
-electrically neutral
2.electrons
-orbit the nucleus
-negatively charged
Radioactive particles
-may be elements, electrons, protons, and
neutron, among others
Each particle
-has a superscript and a subscript
-at the left-hand side of the symbol
A
(Z X)
-superscript (particle’s atomic mass, A)
15 15 0
8 O 7 N+ +1 e
Example: 94 H (deuterium)
-a reaction in which two atomic nuclei join to form a
new type of nuclei
4
-75% (by mass) hydrogen
2
-25% helium (primarily He) and light elements
-trace amounts of lithium
-the process through which light elements formed
-have been formed:
-2 isotopes of helium (He-3 and He-4)
-H-3 (tritium), an isotope of hydrogen
1
1 p n H
1
0
2
1
0
0
2
1 H p He
1
1
3
2
0
0
2
1 H H He n
2
1
3
2
1
0
2
1 H H H p
2
1
3
1
1
1
3
2 He H He p
2
1
4
2
1
1
3
1 H H He n
2
1
4
2
1
0
3
2 He He Be
4
2
7
4
0
0
7
4 Be n Li p
1
0
7
3
1
1
Universe
-continuously expanded for several years
-cloud of hydrogen and helium gases condensed (form stars
including the sun)
Figure 1-2. Cross section of the layered model of a red giant star
-showing the distribution of the first few elements (formed after the big bang)
Layering
-increases the density of the star
Younger Yellow Star
-made up of hydrogen
-fueled by the energy released from the
fusion of hydrogen nuclei (to form
helium)
Outer Layer of the Star
-composed of burning hydrogen from the
nuclear fusions which procedure helium
Once enough helium-4 is produced
-these nuclei become concentrated at the
core of the star
-making temperature hotter at the core
-continues
-but in a “shell” surrounding the helium core
Reactions in the hydrogen fusion shell:
1 1 2 0
1 H + 1 H 1 H + +1 e
2 1 3 0
1H +1 H 2 He +0 γ
3 3 4
2H +2 H 2 He + 11 H + 11 H
When the core reaches the temperature enough
for helium fusion to occur
-Helium burning begins
-outer temperature become colder than the
core (causes the star to become red)
-Beryllium-8 is formed
-another helium-4 nucleus
-fuses with beryllium-8 to form carbon-12
-these reactions happen in the helium
fusion shell (beneath the hydrogen fusion shell)
4 4 8
2 He + 2 He 4 Be
8 4 12
4 Be +2 He 6 C
-become more concentrated at the center
-produces a carbon core
-reaches a certain temperature to allow carbon fusion
-produces neon (within the carbon fusion shell)
nuclear reactions:
12 12 20 4
6 C+ 6 C 10 Ne +2 He
12 12 23 1
6 C + 6C 11 Na +1 H
When neon
-becomes concentrated at the core
-undergoes fusion to produce oxygen
20 0 16 4
10 Ne + 0 γ 8 O + 2 He
20 4 24 0
10 Ne
+ He 2 12 O+ γ 0
When oxygen
-become concentrated at the core
-fusion continues
-producing silicon
16 16 28 4
8 O + 8 O 14 Si + 2 He
Lastly,
Fusion of silicon-28
-produces radioactive nickel-56
-decay to iron
Nuclear Fusions
-happen between different nuclei
-to form the other elements
Production of elements stops
-when iron is formed
Iron
-the most stable nuclei
-unable to undergo fusion
All nuclei energy
-produces great amount of energy
-fuel more nuclear reactions
Energy Input
-is necessary to produce elements heavier than iron
What elements were formed during stellar evolution?
Nuclear chemists
-work with various isotopic forms of elements to study
fission and fusion process
-study the effects of ionizing radiation on materials, living
organisms, and the environment
Dr. Jose O. Juliano
-distinguished academician in the field of nuclear chemistry
and physics -one of the awardees of Ten Outstanding Young
Men for his contributions in nuclear science
-notable research work include:
a. rapid and non-destructive analysis of sulfur and calcium by
radio activation and photo
neutron counting and
b. the disintegration of iron-52 and iron-53
C. Stellar Explosion
End point of stellar formation and evolution
-the star has already exhausted its nuclear
fuel
stable isotopes
-can continue to capture neutrons and form
other heavier isotopes of the seed
nuclei
unstable or radioactive isotopes
-will undergo beta decay
-producing an isotope of a new
element
seed nuclei with few neutrons (from iron to
bismuth)
-neutron capture occurs slowly
-that beta decay of the product isotope
before it can capture another neutron
-referred to as slow process or s-process
Example of s-process:
Formation of copper (Cu) and zinc nuclei
from nickel (Ni) nucleus
62 1 63
28 Ni + 0n 28 Ni
62 63 0
28 Ni 29 Cu + β
-1
63 1 64
29 Cu + 0n 29 Cu
64 64 0
29 Cu 30 Zn + -1 β
62
(beta decay of unstable 28 Ni)
(neutron capture)
64
(beta decay of unstable 29 Cu)
Series of neutron capture
-may occur very fast that:
-the seed nucleus turns into heavier
nucleus before decay takes place
-rapid process or r-process
56 1 57
Fe
26 + 0n 26 Fe Series of neutron capture
57
Fe
26 + 10 n 58
26 Fe
58 1 59
Fe
26 + 0n 26Fe
59 59 0 59
26Fe 27 Co + -1 β
(beta decay of unstabe
26
Fe)
-formed different isotope and much heavier
elements
-all these elements along with the fragments of
the star (during supernova)
-are released into the vast space
-gradually condensed to form:
*different planets (like Earth)
*new stars
*other heavenly bodies
What elements were formed during and after
supernova?