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A. I only
B. II only
C. II and IV
D. I, II and III
5. Which of the following best explains why
raindrops fall according to Aristotelian mechanics?
A. Raindrops fall due to the gravitational attraction
of the Earth.
B. The involuntary motion of raindrops is to fall.
C. The atmosphere can no longer hold the
raindrops.
D.The natural state of the rain is to go to the
hydrosphere.
6. According to the Aristotelian mechanics, which
of the following best describes the condition that
will allow terrestrial objects to move?
A. There should be a cause of movement.
B. The celestial bodies should be aligned perfectly.
C. Their natural state is to move towards the
ground.
D.They should be composed mainly of Earth
element.
7. Which of the following best explains why animals
move?
A. Their natural state is to move towards Earth’s
center.
B. The gravitational attraction of Earth forces them to
move.
C. Their movements are dictated by the movement of
celestial bodies.
D. They voluntarily move due to their innate will to
do so.
8. Which of the following best explains why
plants are considered to have involuntary
motion?
A.It is their natural state not to move.
B. They do not have the will to move.
C. The gravity of the Earth stops them from
moving.
D.The celestial bodies stop them from moving.
9. Which of the following best describes the
condition that will allow plants to move?
A. There should be mechanical forces applied to
them.
B. There should be celestial forces applied to
them.
C. The Sun should be visible to give them energy.
D. Plants can move on their own.
10. When terrestrial objects are unstable, they tend to go
back to their natural state. Find the correct matches for the
natural state of the following:
A. Geosphere:river; Hydrosphere:clay pot;
Atmosphere:flame;Thermosphere:carbon dioxide
B. Geosphere:clay pot; Hydrosphere:river;
Atmosphere:carbon dioxide; Thermoshere:flame
C. Geosphere:carbon dioxide; Hydrosphere:clay pot;
Atmosphere:flame; Thermosphere:river
D. Geosphere:river; Hydrosphere:flame; Atmosphere:clay
pot; Thermosphere:carbon dioxide
Diurnal Motion, Annual
Motion and Precession
of the Equinoxes
How do celestial bodies
move in the celestial
sphere?
Diurnal Motion
- the apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere around the
celestial poles as a direct effect of the Earth’s rotation on its axis.
- it refers to the apparent movement of stars and other celestial
bodies around Earth. The circular path that the celestial bodies take to
complete the diurnal motion is called diurnal circle.
- the apparent motion of celestial bodies viewed from Earth is east to
west.
- If you observed the night sky, the stars seem to move in a counter-
clockwise direction (from east to west) with respect to Polaris or North Star.
- Similarly, the apparent daily motion of the sun, which is the closest
star to Earth, is counter-clockwise.
- You can observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Some stars, called circumpolar stars, never seem to go away
from the horizon, or never set or rise. The closer you get to the
poles, the larger the circle of circumpolar stars is.
On the other hand, the nearer you get to the equator, the circle
of circumpolar stars decreases until it vanishes at the celestial poles.
Annual Motion
- it is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as observed
from Earth as a direct effect of the Earth’s revolution around the
sun.
- the sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path on the
celestial sphere called the ecliptic. The sun moves eastward with
respect to the stars on the celestial sphere.
- it can be observed that the sun’s altitude changes with
season.
- its altitude is at maximum during summer solstice and at
minimum during winter solstice.
- Also, sunrise and sunset points in the horizon changes with
season.
As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, different stars
and constellations appear on the horizon throughout the
year. These are known as the constellations of the Zodiac.
Precession of the Equinoxes
- As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects
the celestial equator twice during a year at two points.
These points are called the equinoxes: vernal and
autumnal.
- During an equinox, the length of daytime is almost
equal to the length of nighttime.
- Vernal or spring equinox happens every March 20
while autumnal equinox occurs every September 22.
- The gravitational force of the sun and the moon on
Earth causes the cyclic precession or “wobbling” of the
Earth’s axis of rotation.
Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent
motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as Earth
‘wobbles’ and this motion happens about every 26 000
years.
At present, Earth’s North Pole points to Polaris.
However, it will eventually point to another star, Vega,
because of precession.
Explore!
Different stars and constellations
appear on the horizon throughout the year.
These are known as the constellations of
the Zodiac. Research what these
constellations of the Zodiac are and how
they move as the Earth wobbles.
What do you think?
How did astronomers know
that the Earth is spherical?
Key Points
• Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of
stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due
to the Earth’s rotation.
• Annual motion is the apparent yearly motion of
stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due
to the Earth’s revolution around the Sun.
• Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent
motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as the
Earth wobbles.
1.Which of the following refers to the
surface where stars appear to be
attached?
A. Ecliptic
B. Celestial poles
C. Celestial sphere
D. Diurnal circle
2. Which of the following is the path
that the stars take in completing
diurnal motion?
A. Celestial sphere
B. Ecliptic
C. Diurnal circle
D. Celestial poles
3. Which of the following is the path taken
by the sun as it moves around the celestial
sphere?
A. Diurnal circle
B. Celestial sphere
C. Celestial poles
D. Ecliptic
4. Which of the following is a consequence
of the Earth’s rotation around its axis?
A. The constellations change their position
with season.
B. The equinoxes wobble.
C. The sun rises in the east and sets in the
west.
D. The North Star changes from Polaris to
Vega.
5. What happens to the circumpolar
stars as you get closer to the poles?
A. Increases
B. Decreases
C. Remains the same
D. Changes position
6. During which time is the sun’s
altitude at its maximum?
A. Summer solstice
B. Winter solstice
C. Autumnal equinox
D. Vernal equinox
7. Which of the following can be observed due to the
Earth’s revolution around the Sun?
I. The sun’s altitude changes with season.
II. Circumpolar stars can be observed.
III. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
IV. Different constellations appear in the horizon
throughout the year.
A. I and II C. II and IV
B. II and III D. I and IV
8. Which of the following can be observed when the
sun intersects the celestial equator as it revolves
around the ecliptic?
A. The length of daytime is greater than the length of
night time.
B. The length of daytime is lesser than the length of
night time.
C. Solar flares are more frequent.
D. The length of daytime is equal to the length of
night time.
9. Which of the following is the driving force
that causes the Earth’s axis of rotation to
wobble?
A. Gravitational force of the Sun and moon
B. Diurnal motion
C. Annual motion
D. Precession
Categorize the following observations
or phenomena whether they are
consequences of diurnal motion, annual
motion or precession of the equinoxes.
10. Revolution of the stars around the celestial poles.
The observation of stars that never seem to rise or
set.
Belief in Ptolemy’s
geocentric model
lasted until the
16th century.
• Planets, moon, sun also set in separate spheres that moved slower
Copernican Model
This is also known as the Heliocentric model
developed by a Polish mathematician Nicolaus
Copernicus. It came from the Greek words helios
meaning sun and centric meaning center. This model
explains that the center of the universe is the Sun and
that the majority of the planets revolve around it. Also,
the epicycle moves in an elliptical motion not circular.
The moon revolves around both the Earth and the Sun
while Earth revolves around the Sun.
Sun Centered
• The distinction between the Solar System
and the Universe was not clear until
modern times
• Polish priest –
astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473 –
1543) eventually
decided
to reject the
geocentric model
Heliocentric
• Heliocentric – Sun centered universe
Sun is at center.
Earth revolves around Sun.
Earth rotates around axis.
Copernicus
Galileo Galilei
Proves Copernicus’ Hypothesis
• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was a pivotal figure in the
development of modern astronomy. He proved the Copernican
hypothesis.
• He also invented the telescope.
Galileo
• The sun is the center (heliocentric) of our solar
system
• Our solar system is a part of a larger universe
• Using a new invention, the
telescope, Galileo was able
to view parts of our Solar
System in motion
What could Galileo see?
• New stars (Milky Way made up of stars)
• Mountains and valleys on the moon
• Four moons orbiting Jupiter (now called Galilean
moons)
• Phases of Venus
• Sunspots (rotating around the sun about once a
month)
• The rings of Saturn
• Planets are disks, not pinpoints of light like the stars
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
• Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer who lived at about
the same time as Galileo.
• He showed mathematically that Copernicus' idea of a sun-
centered system worked well if uniform circular motion was
replaced with uneven (but predictable) motion along off-
center ellipses.
Modern thought begins to take hold
• Other scientists began to look and explain how the
universe worked
• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proposed that gravity is the
main source that holds our solar system together.
• The sun's gravitational pull holds the Earth and other planets
in their orbits.
• Things on or near the Earth are pulled toward it by the Earth's
gravity.
Tychonic Model
This model was developed by a Danish astronomer
Tycho Brahe. It was the combination of Ptolemaic and
Copernican models. This explains that the planets of the
Solar System revolve around the Sun but the Earth is the
center of the universe. The Sun, due to its massive size,
attracts the remaining planets and drags them along its
revolution around the Earth- like metals attracted to a
magnet!
Simply put, the Sun revolves around the Earth and the
planets revolve around the Sun.
So what have we learned?
Before modern thought, the universe was seen in 2 ways
1. Geocentric: Ptolemy's Earth-centered Universe
2. Heliocentric: Copernicus’ and Galileo’s Sun Centered Universe
3. Kepler: explained the orbits of planets
4. Newton: explained gravity is the glue that hold the solar system
together
5. 20th century: newer ideas would change the way we thought about
gravity, space, and time
Explore!
Observe the night sky for a week.
What do you notice at the stars? Why
do they change position every night?
Also, why do you think the night sky
changes with the seasons?
Try it!
Get a tablespoon of sand, a piece of paper
and a magnet. Place the sand on top of the
paper and the magnet at the bottom of the
paper. Move the magnet at any direction. What
do you notice in the sand? Why do you think
the sand moved in the same direction the
magnet did? How will you relate it to our topic
for today?
Key Points
Ptolemaic model – The Earth is at the center of
the universe and everything in the universe
revolves around the Earth.
Copernican model – The Sun is at the center of
the universe and majority of the bodies in the
universe revolves around the Sun.
Tychonic model – The Earth is at the center of the
universe. The sun revolves around the Earth and all
the other planets revolve around the Sun.
The Models of The Universe:
Eudoxus, Aristotle,
Aristarchus, Ptolemy and
Copernicus
Throughout history we have looked at the
stars and wondered about the universe
What are the models of the
universe proposed by
different philosophers?
Eudoxus’ Model
Eudoxus of Cnidus, a Greek astronomer
and mathematician, was the first to propose
a model of the universe based on geometry.
His model composed of 27 concentric
spheres with Earth as the center. The Sun,
the moon, the planets and the fixed stars
have spheres. Each sphere is attached to a
larger sphere through a pole.
The rotation of the spheres on their poles once
every 24 hours accounts for the daily rotation of the
heavens. It is unclear whether Eudoxus regarded
these spheres as physical entities or just
mathematical constructions.
Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle, a Greek philosophers and
astronomer, considered the model proposed by
Eudoxus, but he considered these spheres as
physical entities. He thought that these spheres
were filled with the divine and eternal “ether”
that caused the spheres to move. He introduced
the Prime Mover, as the cause of the
movement of the spheres.
His model composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of
the Sun, the Moon, and five known planets. As the spheres move,
they maintained the same distance from the Earth. Also, they
moved at constant speeds.
Aristarchus’ Model
Aristarchus of Samos, a Greek astronomer and
mathematician, was the first to hypothesize that the
Sun is the center of the universe.
He visualized that the Moon orbits around a
spherical Earth which then revolves around the Sun.
He believed that the stars are very far away from
the Earth as evidenced by the absence of stellar
parallax- that is, the stars do not change positions
relative to each other as the Earth revolves around
the Sun.
Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he
concluded that the Sun is 20 times farther from the Earth than the Moon is
to the Earth; the Earth is about three times larger than the Moon; and the
Sun is 20 times larger than the Moon.
He also reasoned out that smaller spheres orbit around larger ones.
Thus, the Moon orbits around the Earth and the Earth orbits around the
Sun.
Ptolemy’s Model
The Sun, Moon, stars and planets were believed
to move in a uniform circular motion- the “perfect”
motion assigned to celestial bodies by the ancient
Greeks. However, observations showed otherwise.
The paths of the celestial bodies are not circular,
and they vary in distances. Babylonians even showed
that some planets exhibit a retrograde motion- a
motion opposite to that of other planets.
To explain “imperfect motions” of heavenly
bodies, Claudius Ptolemy, a Greco-Egyptian
astronomer and mathematician, proposed his
own geocentric (Earth-centered) model of the
universe.
He accounted for the apparent motions of
the planets around the Earth by assuming that
each planet moved around a sphere called an
epicycle. The center of the epicycle then moved
on a larger sphere called a deferent.
1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around
the epicycle.
2. The epicycle’s center also moves counter-
clockwise around the center of the deferent
(indicated by the + sign in the image).
3. The center of the epicycle moves around
the equant with a uniform speed.
4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the
deferent, or it is eccentric (off the center).
This explains why, as observed from the
Earth, the Sun or a planet moves slowest
when it is farthest from the Earth and moves
fastest when it is nearest the Earth.
4. The motion of the planet can be described
by points 1-7 in the figure below. At point 4,
the planet moves in a retrograde (clockwise)
direction. The planet is brightest at this point
because it is closest to the Earth.
The combination of small
and large circles
produces “loop-the-
loop” motion.
Ptolemy’s model: did not fit data
OCCAM’S RAZOR
During the Middle Ages,
entia non sunt
Ptolemy’s model had to multiplicanda
be fiddled with – more praeter necessitatem
epicycles were added.
entities should not be
multiplied beyond
The model was needlessly necessity
complicated because it
was based on erroneous William of Occam (c. 1285–1347 )
assumptions.
Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model for
the universe.
Mikolaj Kopernik
(1473-1543)
Poland
A. C
B. A
C. B
D. D
7. In the image below, which of the following best describes the part labeled
as B according to the Ptolemaic system?
A. It is the path of the planet as it revolves
around the Sun.
B. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves
around the Sun.
C. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves
around the planet.
D. It is the path of the planet as it revolves
around the Earth.
8. According to the Ptolemaic system, which of the following
best explains why planets sometimes move in a retrograde
motion?
A. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the
epicycle.
B. It is the result of a planet’s simultaneous movement
around the epicycle and the deferent.
C. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the
deferent.
D. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the Earth.
9. By placing the Sun as the center of the
universe, which of the following was
eliminated from Ptolemy’s model by
Copernicus?
A. Epicycle and deferent
B. Stellar parallax
C. The earth as the center
D. Retrograde motion