Emi PPT2

ELECTRONIC VOLTMETERS AND THEIR ADVANTAGES
 Definition: The voltmeter which uses the amplifier for increases their
sensitivity is known as the electronic voltmeter.
 It is used for measuring the voltages of both the AC and DC devices.
 The electronic voltmeter gives the accurate reading because of high input
resistance.
 The moving coil voltmeter is not able to detect the low voltages.
 The electronic voltmeter overcomes this problem.
 The electronic voltmeter has high input impedance because of which it

detects the signals of very weak strength, hence gives the accurate reading.
 The high impedance means the circuit opposes the input supply.
 In electronic voltmeter, the pointer is deflected by taking the supply from the
auxiliary amplifier circuit.
 The output voltages of the amplifier circuit are similar to the voltage of the test
circuit.
 The extra power is not passing through the deflector because of which the
meter gives the accurate reading.
 Detection of Low-level signals – The electronic voltmeter uses the amplifier
which avoids the load error. The amplifier detects the very small signals which
produce the current of approximately 50μA. The detection of low-level signals
is essential for determining the true value of the measurement.
 Low Power Consumption – The electronic voltmeter has vacuum tubes and
the transistor which has the amplifying properties. It uses the auxiliary source
for the deflection of the pointer. The measurand voltage controls the deflection
of the sensing element. Thus, the circuit of the electronic voltmeter consumes
very less power.
 High-Frequency Range – The working of the electronic voltmeter is free from

frequency range because of the transistor. Along with the voltage, the signal of
very high and low frequency can also be measured through it.
 The electronic voltmeter uses the transistor or vacuum tube.
 The transistor type voltmeter (TVM) has resistance because of which it cannot
measure the current.
 And the vacuum voltmeter (VVM) has low resistance. Hence it is used for
measuring the current.
VACUUM TUBE VOLTMETERS
 Definition: The voltmeter which uses the vacuum tube for amplifying the
measurand AC and DC voltage is known as the vacuum tube voltmeter
(VTM).
 The vacuum tube increases the sensitivity of the voltmeter because of which it
can detect the signal of very weak strength.
 The electronic voltmeter is used for measuring the voltage of direct, RMS
and peak voltage of the system. The vacuum tube has many advantages like
they have high input impedance, wide frequency range and high sensitivity.
 The most significant advantage of the VTM is that it can draw very less
current as compared to the other meter.
 In VTM, the measuring signal is directly supplied to the vacuum tube of the
meter. The vacuum tube is amplifying the signal and pass it to the deflecting
meter.
AVERAGE READING DIODE VACUUM TUBE VOLTMETER
 The simplest type of diode voltmeter is similar to a rectifier instrument.
 The circuit of the diode voltmeter consists the PMMC meter, load resistor,
vacuum tube diode, all connected in series.
 The applied voltage is
e = Em sinωt
SIMPLE DIODE TYPE VOLTMETER
 For obtaining the accurate reading from the voltmeter, it is essential that their
current and voltage are directly proportional to each other.
 This can be done by the help of the series resistor.
 A high series resistance R is desirable both to limit the current and to make the
plate voltage – current characteristics linear.
 The plate resistance of a diode is not constant and hence in order to swamp out
the variations in the plate resistance, a high value of series resistance, R is
used.
 If the series resistance is sufficiently high, the resistance of the tube is

negligible in comparison, and therefore we get a linear plate voltage – current
characteristics.
 Thereby, the scale of the PMMC instrument is uniform and is independent of

the variations of tube resistance.
 A series resistance of 105 Ω or more is used for the purpose of measurement of

a sinusoidal input voltage.
 The diode conducts during the positive half cycle and does not conduct during
the negative half cycle, the average current through the meter is thus:
Eav Erms Erms
I av    0.45
2 R 2 1.11 R R
Advantages of average reading diode vacuum tube voltmeter:
 Simplicity
 High input resistance and low power consumption
 Conversion to rms reading voltmeter
Disadvantages
 Frequency range: not suitable for radio frequencies range
 Response to low voltages: Non linearity occurs for very low voltages
PEAK READING DIODE VACUUM TUBE VOLTMETER
 In this type of voltmeter, the capacitor is used in the circuit.
 When the capacitor is connected in series with the resistance, then it is called
the Series Type Peak Diode Reading Vacuum Voltmeter, and in
compensated shunt type voltmeter the capacitor is linked parallel with the
series resistor.
 The working of both the series and shunt type voltmeter is almost same.
 The capacitor becomes charged by the positive peak voltage of the AC supply
and its discharge through the shunt resistor because of which their voltage
decreases.
 Between peaks, a small portion of the charge on the capacitor leaks off through
the resistor R, causing a small fall in capacitor voltage.
 At the positive peak of the next cycle, the charge that has been lost in this way
is replenished back by a pulse or current through the diode.
 The voltage across the capacitor C, and hence across the resistance R, is
thereby again built up almost to the peak of the applied voltage.
 Either the average voltage across R, or the average current through R, can be
used to indicate the peak of the applied voltage.
 When the applied voltage is not too small the relationship between the peak
voltage and rectified output is linear.
 The voltage across resistance R can be amplified by d.c amplifier and by using
a PMMC instrument across the amplifier output, the peak voltage can be
indicated.
 The vacuum tube voltmeter is used in the past for the measurement of
voltages.
 Nowadays it is replaced by the transistor voltmeter (TVM) and the field effect
voltmeter (FETVM).
DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETER
 Definition: The voltmeter which measures the difference between the known
and the unknown voltage source is known as the differential voltmeter.
 It works on the principle of comparison between the reference and the

unknown voltage sources.
 The accuracy of the differential voltmeter is very high.
 The principle of operation of the differential voltmeter is similar to that of the

potentiometer, and hence it is called potentiometer voltmeter.
CONSTRUCTION OF DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETER
 The null meter is placed between the unknown voltage source and the
precision divider.
 The output of the precision divider is connected to the known voltage source.
 The precision divider is adjusted until the meter shows the zero deflection.
 The null deflection of the meter shows that the magnitude of both the known
and the unknown voltage source becomes equal.
 During the null deflection, neither the known nor the unknown source
applies current to the meter.
 And the voltmeter shows the high impedance to the measurand source.
 The null meter only shows the residual difference between the known and
the unknown voltage source.
 For determining the exact difference between the sources, the more sensitive
meter is used.
 The low voltage DC standard source or the low voltage Zener controlled
precision supply is used as a reference voltage.
 The high voltage supply is used for measuring the high voltages.
Types of Differential Voltmeter
 The differential voltmeter is of two types.
1. AC Differential Voltmeter
2. DC Differential Voltmeter
AC DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETER
 The differential voltmeter is the improved form of the DC instruments.
 The unknown AC voltage source applies to the rectifier which converts the AC
voltage to the DC voltage with equivalent magnitude.
 The resultant DC apply to the potentiometer for comparing it with the known
voltage source.
 The block diagram of the AC differential voltmeter shown in the figure below.
 The rectifying AC voltage compares with the standard DC voltage and the
meter shows the null deflection when their magnitudes become equals.
 Thus, the value of unknown voltage is determined.

AC DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETER
DC DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETER
 The unknown DC source acts as an input to the amplifier section.
 The fraction of the output voltage is feedback to the input voltage with the help
of the one divider network.
 The other section of the voltage divider supplies the fractional input to the
meter amplifier.
 The meter measures the difference between the feedback voltage and the
reference voltage.
 If the magnitude of both the unknown and reference voltages becomes zero,
then the null meter shows the null deflection.
DC DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETER
ELECTRONIC MULTIMETERS
ELECTRONIC MULTIMETER
 Definition: The Electronic Multimeter is a device which is used for the

measurement of various electrical and electronic quantities such as current,
voltage, resistance etc.
 The multimeter name is given to it to define its ability to measure multiple

quantities.
 It is provided with inbuilt power supply necessary for the functioning of the
device.
 Any component such as a resistor, battery can be connected to its outer probes
for the measurement of the electronic quantity.
 In order to understand how a single meter can measure multiple electrical

quantities, we need to look into its constructional feature and the components
which make it a multimeter.
CONSTRUCTION AND COMPONENTS OF MULTIMETER
 The electronic multimeter is one of the most versatile laboratory instruments

which is capable of measurement of d.c and a.c. currents, voltages and
resistances.
 The solid state version of the multimeter is described here.
 The multimeter basically consists of a bridge DC amplifier, rectifier, PMMC

meter, function switch, internal battery and an attenuator.
 The attenuator helps to limit the value of the input voltage to the desired value.
 The rectifier is essential in a multimeter for the conversion of AC voltage into

DC voltage.
 The internal battery and additional circuitry is for the measurement of

resistance.
 The FUNCTION switch is to select various measurement functions of the

instrument like current, voltage and resistance.
 In addition, the instrument has a built in power supply for operation on power
mains, and many cases one or more batteries for operation as a portable test
instrument.
WORKING OF THE MULTIMETER
 The Multimeter performs its operation by providing the input voltage to the gate
terminal of the FET, and this gate voltage is responsible for the increase in the
source voltage of the FET.
 A balanced bridge d.c amplifier using two FETs which are reasonably well
matched for current gain to ensure thermal stability of the circuit.
 The two FETs form the upper arms of the bridge circuit.
 Source resistors R1 and R2, together with ZERO adjustment resistor R3, form
the lower brdige arms.
 The PMMC meter is connected between source terminals of the FETs,

representing two opposite corners of the bridge..
 In case no input signal is applied to the gate terminals of the FETs, they (gate
terminals) are at ground potential.
 In the ideal condition, no current should flow from PMMC meter so thus it must
show zero deflection, but in the practical implementation, the PMMC meter
shows some deflection.
 On account of some mismatch between the FETs and difference in the value of
resistors a current does flow.
 This is undesirable in steady state. Thus a zero adjusts control resistor is used
for adjusting the value of current to zero.
 After this again, the PMMC shows no deflection.

 But make sure the above condition is defined when no input is applied to it.
 When the input is applied to it either by connecting a resistor or any other

component, the circuit switched to the active state and the changes in the circuit
due to the connection of the component is deflected with the help of PMMC
meter.
 There are series of steps which is to be followed while measurement. First, the
multimeter should be tested whether is it working or not. If it is not working the
battery requirements of the device should be checked.
 After this, we need to set the knob of the multimeter to set it on the values or
quantity which is to be measured.
 For example, if we want to measure resistance then the multimeter should be set
to option “ohm”. Apart from this, we need to set the range of multimeter.
 It is significant to set the range of multimeter because if you are measuring the
resistance of the resistor which possesses value in kilo-ohms and the range of
multimeter is not set and by default it is in ohm or mega-ohms, then you will
get wrong results.
 Therefore it is crucial to set the range of the multimeter properly.

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE BY MULTIMETER
 The resistance can be measured by multimeter easily by connecting the two

probes of the multimeter with two ends of a resistor.
 The unknown resistor the resistance of which is to be measured is connected to

the function switch and the battery.
 The battery of 1.5 V is connected to the circuit when the resistor is connected
the circuit becomes complete, and the voltage across the resistor is measured
by the circuit, and the particular range is indicated by the PMMC meter.
 There are various resistors that are connected in parallel; all these resistors
possess different values of resistance.
 The range which is to be measured can be set and also a particular range of
value of resistance can be connected to the unknown resistor.
 The Amplifier connected in series amplifies the signal.
 The signal gets distorted as it passes through the circuit.
 Moreover, the current also flows from that path in which the resistor is
connected.
 And we all are aware of the fact that the value of voltage drop across the
resistor is directly proportional to the value of the resistor.
 Thus, as the value of resistance increases the value of the voltage drop across it
increases, and thus the PMMC meter shows the deflection accordingly.
 In this way, the value of resistance is measured.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE | CRO
 Definition: The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a type of electrical
instrument which is used for showing the measurement and analysis of
waveforms and others electronic and electrical phenomenon.
 It is a very fast X-Y plotter shows the input signal versus another signal or
versus time.
 The CROs are used to analyse the waveforms, transient, phenomena, and other
time-varying quantities from a very low-frequency range to the radio
frequencies.
 The CRO is mainly operated on voltages.
 Thus, the other physical quantity like current, strain, acceleration, pressure, are
converted into the voltage with the help of the transducer and thus represent on
a CRO.
 The CRO has Stylus (i.e., a luminous spot) which move over the display area
in response to an input voltage.
 This luminous spot is produced by a beam of electrons striking on a

fluorescent screen.
 The normal form of the CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which is an
internally generated ramp voltage called “time base”.
 The horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in a horizontal
direction from left to right over the display area or screen.
 The vertical voltage is the voltage under investigation.
 The vertical voltage moves the luminous spot up and down on the screen.
 When the input voltage moves very fast on the screen, the display on the
screen appears stationary.
 Thus, CRO provides a means of the visualising time-varying voltage.

CONSTRUCTION OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The main parts of the cathode ray oscilloscope are as follows.
1. Cathode Ray Tube
2. Electronic Gun Assembly
3. Deflecting Plate
4. Fluorescent Screen For CRT
5. Glass Envelope
Their parts are explained below in details.

CONSTRUCTION OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
1. CATHODE RAY TUBE
 The cathode ray tube is the vacuum tube which converts the electrical signal
into the visual signal.
 The cathode ray tube mainly consists the electron gun and the electrostatic
deflection plates (vertical and horizontal).
 The electron gun produces a focused beam of the electron which is accelerated
to high frequency.
 The vertical deflection plate moves the beams up and down and the horizontal
beam moved the electrons beams left to right.
 These movements are independent to each other and hence the beam may be
positioned anywhere on the screen.
2. ELECTRONIC GUN ASSEMBLY
 The electron gun emits the electrons and forms them into a beam.
 The electron gun mainly consists a heater, cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating

anode, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode.
 For gaining the high emission of electrons at the moderate temperature, the
layers of barium and strontium is deposited on the end of the cathode.
 After the emission of an electron from the cathode grid, it passes through the
control grid.
 The control grid is usually a nickel cylinder with a centrally located co-axial
with the CRT axis.
 It controls the intensity of the emitted electron from the cathode.

 The electron while passing through the control grid is accelerated by a high
positive potential which is applied to the pre-accelerating or accelerating nodes.
 The electron beam is focused on focusing electrodes and then passes through
the vertical and horizontal deflection plates and then goes on to the fluorescent
lamp.
 The pre-accelerating and accelerating anode are connected to 1500v, and the
focusing electrode is connected to 500 v.
 There are two methods of focusing on the electron beam.
 These methods are
1. Electrostatic focusing
2. Electromagnetic focusing.
 The CRO uses an electrostatic focusing tube.

3. DEFLECTING PLATE
 The electron beam after leaving the electron gun passes through the two pairs of
the deflecting plate.
 The pair of plate producing the vertical deflection is called a vertical deflecting
plate or Y plates, and the pair of the plate which is used for horizontal deflection
is called horizontal deflection plate or X plates.
4. FLUORESCENT SCREEN FOR CRT
 The front of the CRT is called the face plate. It is flat for screen sized up to
about 100mm×100mm.
 The screen of the CRT is slightly curved for larger displays.
 The face plate is formed by pressing the molten glass into a mould and then
annealing it.
 The inside surface of the faceplate is coated with phosphor crystal.
 The phosphor converts electrical energy into light energy.
 When an electronics beam strike phosphor crystal, it raises their energy level
and hence light is emitted during phosphorous crystallisation.
 This phenomenon is called fluorescence.

5. GLASS ENVELOPE
 It is a highly evacuated conical shape structure.
 The inner surface of the CRT between the neck and the screen is coated with the
aquadag.
 The aquadag is a conducting material and act as a high-voltage electrode.
 The coating surface is electrically connected to the accelerating anode and

hence help the electron to be the focus.
WORKING OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
 When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes through the
control grid.
 The control grid controls the intensity of electron in the vacuum tube.
 If the control grid has high negative potential, then it allows only a few
electrons to pass through it.
 Thus, the dim spot is produced on the lightning screen.
 If the negative potential on the control grid is low, then the bright spot is
produced.
 Hence the intensity of light depends on the negative potential of the control
grid.
 After moving the control grid the electron beam passing through the focusing
and accelerating anodes.
 The accelerating anodes are at a high positive potential and hence they converge
the beam at a point on the screen.
 After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam comes under the effect of
the deflecting plates.
 When the deflecting plate is at zero potential, the beam produces a spot at the
centre.
 If the voltage is applied to the vertical deflecting plate, the electron beam
focuses at the upward and when the voltage is applied horizontally the spot of
light will be deflected horizontally.
BASIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF CATHODE RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE
OSCILLOSCOPE
1. Vertical Deflection System:
The input signal for examining are fed to the vertical deflection system plates
with the help of input attenuator and a number of amplifier stages.
The main function of these amplifiers is to amplify the weak signals so that the
amplified signal can produce the desirable signals.
2. Horizontal Deflection System:
Like the vertical system horizontal system also consists of horizontal amplifiers
to amplify the weak input voltage signals but in contrast to vertical deflection
system, horizontal deflection plates are fed by a sweep voltage that provides a time
base as shown .
OSCILLOSCOPE
3. Synchronization:
There must be synchronization between the sweep and the signal being measured.
Synchronization is done to produce stationary pattern. There are three sources of
synchronization which can be selected by synchronization selector and they are
written below:
• Internal In this trigger is obtained from the signal being measured through
vertical amplifier.
• External In this trigger an external trigger source is required.
• Line In this method trigger is obtained power supply.
Intensity Modulation Intensity modulation can be done by inserting the signal

between the ground and the cathode. Intensity modulation causes the
brightening of the display.
OSCILLOSCOPE
• Positioning Controls Position can be control by applying small independent
internal direct voltage sources to the deflecting plates and with the help of
potentiometer (using it as voltage divider) we can control the position of signal.
• Focus Control Focus can be controlled by changing the focal length of the
focusing electrode which acts like a lens and focal length can be changed by the
changing potential of the focusing anode.
• Intensity Control The intensity can be varied by changing the grid potential
with respect to cathode.
• Calibration Circuit Calibrating voltage has a square shape which is usually

internally generated of known amplitude.
STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
 Storage targets can be distinguished from standard phosphor targets by their

ability to retain their waveform pattern for a long time, independent of
phosphor persistence.
 Two storage techniques are used in oscilloscope CRTs, mesh storage and
phosphor storage.
 A mesh – storage CRT uses a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh

as the storage target.
 This mesh is placed between the deflection plates and the standard phosphor
target in the CRT.
 The writing beam, which is the focused electron beam of the standard CRT,
charges the dielectric material positively where hit.
 The storage target is then bombarded with low velocity electrons from a flood
gun and the positively charged area of the storage target allow these electrons
to pass through to the standard phosphor target and thereby reproduce the
stored image on the screen.
 Thus the mesh storage has both a storage target and a phosphor display target.
 The phosphor storage CRT uses a thin layer of phosphor to serve both as the
storage and the display element.
MESH STORAGE:
 It is used to display very low frequencies (VLF) signals and finds many
applications in mechanical and biomedical fields.
 The conventional scope has a display with a phosphor persistence ranging

from a few micro seconds to a few seconds.
 The persistence can be increased to a few hours, from a few seconds.

 A mesh storage CRT contains a dielectric material deposited on the storage

mesh, a collector mesh, flood guns and a collimator, in addition to the all the
elements of the standard CRT.
 The storage target, a thin deposition of dielectric material such as the

Magnesium Fluoride on the storage mesh, makes use of the property known as
secondary emission.
 The writing gun etches the positively charged pattern on the storage mesh or
target by knocking off secondary emission electrons.
 Because of the excellent insulating property of the Magnesium Fluoride

coating, this positively charged pattern remains exactly in the position where
it is deposited.
 In order to make a pattern visible, a special electron gun, called the flood gun,
is switched on (even after many hours).
 The electron paths are adjusted by the collimator electrode, which constitutes
the low voltage electro static lens system (to focus the electron beam) as
shown in Figure 7.27.
 Most of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh.
 Only electrons near the stored positive charge are pulled to the storage target
with sufficient force to hit the phosphor screen.
 The CRT will now display the signal and it will remain visible as long as the
flood guns operate.
 To erase the pattern on the storage mesh, a negative voltage is applied to

neutralize the stored positive charge.
 Since the storage mesh makes use of secondary emission, between the first and
second crossover, more electrons are emitted than are absorbed by the
material, and hence a net positive charge results.
 Below the first cross over, a net negative charge results, since the impinging
electrons do not have sufficient energy to force an equal number to be emitted.
 In order to store a trace, assume that the storage surface is uniformly charged
and write gun (beam emission gun) will hit the storage target.
 Those areas of the storage surface hit by the deflecting beam, lose electrons,
which are collected by the collector mesh.
 Hence the write deflection beam pattern is traced on the storage surface as a
positive charge pattern.
 Since the insulation of the dielectric material is high enough to prevent any
loss in the charge, for the considerable length of time, the pattern is stored. To
view the stored trace, the flood gun is used when the write gun is turned off.
 The flood gun, biased very near the storage mesh potential, emits a flood of
electrons which moves towards the collector mesh, since it is biased slightly
more positive than the deflection region.
 The collimator, a conductive coating on the CRT envelope with the applied
potential, helps to align the flood electrons so that they approach the strorage
target perpendicularly.
 When the electron penetrate beyond the collector mesh, they encounter either a
positively charged region on the storage surface or negatively charged region
where no trace has been stored.
 The positively charge area allow the electrons to pass through to the post
accelerator region and the display target phosphor.
 The negatively charged region repels the flood electrons back to the collector
mesh.
 Thus the charge pattern on the storage appears reproduced on the CRT screen
just as though it were being traced by a deflected beam.
DIGITAL READOUT OSCILLOSCOPE
 The digital readout oscilloscope instrument has a CRT display and a counter
display. The diagram shown is of an instrument where the counter measure the
time. The input wave form is sampled and the sampling circuit advances the
sampling position in fixed increments, a process called strobing.
 The equivalent time between each sample depends on the numbers of sample
taken per cm and on the sweep time/cm, e.g. a sweep rate of 1 nano-sec/cm
and a sampling rate of 100 samples/cm gives a time of 10 pico-sec/sample.
 Two intensified portions of the CRT trace identify 0% and 100% zones
position.
 Each zone can be shifted to any part of the display. The voltage divider taps
between the 0% and 100% memory voltage are set for start and stop timing.
 The coincidence of any of the input waveforms with the selected percentage
point is sensed by this voltage comparator.
 The numbers of the clock pulse which corresponds to the actual sample taken
are read out digitally in the Nixie display tube in ns, µs, ms or seconds.
 The CRT display is obtained by sampling the 0% reference voltage as chosen

by the memory circuit.
 A linear ramp generator produces a voltage; when the ramp voltage equals the
0% reference the gate opens. When the ramp equal the 100% reference gate
closes. The number of clock pulses that activate the counter is directly
proportional to the voltage between the selected reference and is read out in
mV or volts by the Nixie tube display.
 The basic advantage of digital operation is the stored capability, the stored
waveform can be repetitively read out, thus making transient appear
repetitively and allowing their convenient display on the scope screen.

DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
 Digital Storage Oscilliscope are available in processing and non-processing

types.
 Processing types include built in computing power, which takes advantage of

the fact that all data is already in digital form.
 The inclusion of interfacing and a microprocessor provides a complete system

for information acquisition, analysis and output.
 Processing capability ranges from simple functions (such as average, area, rms,
etc.) to complete Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) spectrum analysis capability.
 Non–processing digital scopes are designed as replacements for analog

instruments for both storage and non-storage types.
 Their many desirable features may lead to replace analog scopes entirely
(within the Bandwidth range where digitization in feasible).
 The scope operating controls are designed such that all confusing details are
placed on the back side and one appears to be using a conventional scope.
 However, some digital scope panels are simpler also, most digital scopes provide
the facility of switching selectable to analog operation as one of the operating
modes.
 The basic advantage of digital operation is the storage capability, the stored
waveform can be repetitively read out, thus making transients appear repetitively
and allowing their convenient display on the scope screen. (The CRT used
in Digital Storage Oscilliscope is an ordinary CRT, not a storage type CRT.)
 Furthermore, the voltage and time scales of display are easily changed after the
waveform has been recorded, which allows expansion (typically to 64 times) of
selected portions, to observe greater details.
 A cross-hair cursor can be positioned at any desired point on the waveform and
the voltage/time values displayed digitally on the screen, and/or readout
electrically.
 Some scopes use 12 bit converters, giving 0.025% resolution and 0.1% accuracy
on voltage and time readings, which are better than the 2-5% of analog scopes.
 Split screen capabilities (simultaneously displaying live analog traces and

replayed stored ones) enable easy comparison of the two signals.
 Pretrigger capability is also a significant advantage. The display of stored data is

possible in both amplitude versus time and X- Y modes. In addition to the fast
memory readout used for CRT display, a slow readout is possible for producing
hard copy with external plotters.
 When more memory than the basic amount (typically 4096 points/words) is
needed, a magnetic disk accessory allows expansion to 32,000 points.
 All Digital Storage Oscilliscope scopes are limited in bandwidth by the speed of
their A/D converters.
 However, 20 MHz digitizing rates available on some scopes yield a 5 MHz

bandwidth, which is adequate for most applications.
 Consider a single channel of Fig. 7.51. The analog voltage input signal is digitised
in a 10 bit A/D converter with a resolution of 0.1% (1 part in 1024) and frequency
response of 25 kHz.
 The total digital memory storage capacity is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for
two channels each and 1024 for four channels each.
 The analog input voltage is sampled at adjustable rates (up to 100,000 samples per
second) and data points are read onto the memory.
 A maximum of 4096 points are storable in this particular instrument.

 (Sampling rate and memory size are selected to suit the duration and waveform of
the physical event being recorded.)
 Once the sampled record of the event is captured in memory, many useful
manipulations are possible, since memory can be read out without being erased.
 If the memory is read out rapidly and repetitively, an input event which was a
single shot transient becomes a repetitive or continuous waveform that can be
observed easily on an ordinary scope (not a storage scope).
 The digital memory also may be read directly (without going through DAC) to,
say, a computer where a stored program can manipulate the data in almost any
way desired.
 Pre-triggering recording allows the input signal preceding the trigger points to be
recorded. In ordinary triggering the recording process is started by the rise of the
input (or some external triggering) above some preset threshold value.
• As in digital recorder, DSO can be set to record continuously (new data coming
into the memory pushes out old data, once memory is full), until the trigger signal
is received; then the recording is stopped, thus freezing data received prior to the
trigger signal in the memory.
• An adjustable trigger delay allows operator control of the stop point, so that the
trigger may occur near the beginning, middle or end of the stored information.
Q METER
 The overall efficiency of coils and capacitors intended for RF applications is best
evaluated using the Q value.
 The Q Meter is an instrument designed to measure some electrical properties of

coils and capacitors.
 The principle of the Q meter is based on series resonance; the voltage drop
across the coil or capacitor is Q times the applied voltage (where Q is the ratio of
reactance to resistance, XL/R).
 If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit, a voltmeter across the capacitor can be
calibrated to read. Q directly.
Q METER
 At resonance XL= XC and EL= IXL, EC = IXC, E = I R
 From the above equation, if E is kept constant the voltage across the capacitor
can be measured by a voltmeter calibrated to read directly in terms of Q.
Q METER
 A practical Q meter circuit is shown in Fig. 10.7.
Q METER
 The wide range oscillator, with frequency range from 50 kHz to 50 MHz, delivers
current to a resistance Rsh having a value of 0.02 Ω.
 This shunt resistance introduces almost no resistance into the tank circuit and
therefore represents a voltage source of a magnitude ‘e’ with a small
internal resistance.
 The voltage across the shunt is measured with a thermocouple meter.
 The voltage across the capacitor is measured by an electronic voltmeter

corresponding to Ec and calibrated directly to read Q.
 The oscillator energy is coupled to the tank circuit.
 The circuit is tuned to resonance by varying C until the electronic voltmeter reads
the maximum value.
Q METER
 The resonance output voltage E, corresponding to Ec, is E = Q X e, that is, Q =
E/e. Since e is known, the electronic voltmeter can be calibrated to read Q
directly.
 The inductance of the coil can be determined by connecting it to the test terminals
of the instrument.
 The circuit is tuned to resonance by varying either the capacitance or the oscillator
frequency.
 If the capacitance is varied, the oscillator frequency is adjusted to a given

frequency and resonance is obtained.
 If the capacitance is pre-setted to a desired value, the oscillator frequency is varied

until resonance occurs.
Q METER
 The Q reading on the output meter must be multiplied by the index setting or the
“Multiply Q by” switch to obtain the actual Q value.
 The (C). inductance of the coil can be calculated from known values of the coil
frequency and resonating capacitor
 The Q indicated is not the actual Q, because the losses of the resonating capacitor,
voltmeter and inserted resistance are all included in the measuring circuit.
 The actual Q of the measured coil is somewhat greater than the indicated Q.
 This difference is negligible except where the resistance of the coil is relatively
small compared to the inserted resistance Rsh.
FACTORS THAT MAY CAUSE ERROR
 1. At high frequencies the electronic voltmeter may suffer from losses due to the
transit time effect. The effect of Rsh is to introduce an additional resistance in the
tank circuit, as shown in Fig. 10.8.
 To make the Qobs value as close as possible to Qact, Rsh should be made as small
as possible. An Rsh value of 0.02 – 0.04 Ω introduces negligible error.
 2. Another source of error, and probably the most important one, is the distributed
capacitance or self capacitance of the measuring circuit.
 The presence of distributed or stray capacitances modifies the actual Q and the
inductance of the coil.
 At the resonant frequency, at which the self capacitance and inductance of the coil
are equal, the circuit impedance is purely resistive—this characteristic can be used
to measure the distributed capacitance.
 One of the simplest methods of determining the distributed capacitance (Cs of a

coil involves the plotting of a graph of 1/f2 against C in picofarads.
 The frequency of the oscillator in the Q meter is varied and the corresponding
value of C for resonance is noted. 1/f2 is plotted against C in picofarads, as shown
in Fig. 10.9(a).
 The value of the unknown inductance can also be determined from the equation.
 Another method of determining the stray or distributed capacitance (Cs) of a coil

involves making two measurements at different frequencies.
 The capacitor C of the Q meter is calibrated to indicate the capacitance value. The
test coil is connected to the Q meter terminals, as shown in Fig. 10.9(b)
• The tuning capacitor is set to a high value position (to its maximum) and the
circuit is resonated by varying the oscillator frequency. Suppose the meter
indicates resonance and the oscillator frequency is found to be f1 Hz and the
capacitor value to be C1.
• The oscillator frequency, of the Q-meter is now increased to twice the origi-nal
frequency, that is, f2 = 2f1, and the capacitor is varied until resonance occurs at C2.
 The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is given by
 Therefore, for the initial resonance condition, the total capacitance of the circuit is
(C1+Cs) and the resonant frequency equals
 After the oscillator and the tuning capacitor are varied for the new value of
resonance, the capacitance is (C2+Cs), therefore
 The distributed capacitance can be calculated using the equation above.

IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT USING Q METER
• An unknown impedance can be measured using a Q meter, either by series or
shunt substitution method.
• If the impedance to be measured is small, the former is used and if it is large the
later method is used.
• In the Q meter method of measurement of Z, the unknown impedance Zx is

determined by individually determining its components Rx and Lx.
• The technique utilises an LC tank of a Q meter, L being an externally

connected standard coil.
• Figure 10.10(a) shows the method of series substitution while Fig. 10.10(b) shows
the shunt substitution method.To Q-meter To Q-meter
• Referring to Fig. 10.10(a), the unknown impedance is shorted or otherwise not

connected and the tuned circuit is adjusted for resonance at the oscillator
frequency. The value of Q and C are noted. The unknown impedance is then
connected, the capacitor is varied for resonance, and new values Q’ and C’ are
noted.
• Subtracting Eq. (10.4) from Eq. (10.3), we have
• Since R’ = R + Rx, Rx= R’ – R, where R is the resistance of the auxiliary coil.
• The unknown impedance Zx can be calculated from the equation

• A positive value of Xx indicates inductive reactance and a negative value indicates
capacitive reactance.
• If Zx is considerably greater than XL, the unknown impedance is shunted across

the coil and the capacitor, as shown in Fig. 10.10(b).
• Yx represents the shunt admittance of the unknown impedance. It consists of two

shunt elements, conductance Gx and susceptance Bx.
• In this method, Yx is disconnected and the capacitor C is tuned to the resonant

value. At the oscillator frequency, the values of Q and C are noted.
• With Yxconnected, the capacitor is tuned again for resonance at the oscillator
frequency and the new values Q’ and C’ are noted.
• Hence.
• The accuracy with which the reactance can be determined by the method of
substitution is quite high. Error may mainly be because
• (i) C’ cannot be accurately determined since the resonance curve may be flat due
to additional resistance, and
• (ii) The stray inductance associated with the tuning capacitor causes errors at
VHF.
• The accuracy with which the resistance component of the unknown impedance is
obtained is poor. If the losses in the unknown impedance are too small to
introduce any change in the Q, the substitution method is quite satisfactory.
• The substitution method can also be used for measuring the losses of the coil. It is
not satisfactory for measuring the losses of an air-dielectric capacitor, since they
are too small to be detected by this method.
Measurement of Characteristic Impedance (Z0) of a Transmission
Line Using Q Meter
• Figure 10.11(a) shows a series substitution method for determining the
characteristic impedance of a transmission line and Fig. 10.11(b) shows a shunt or
parallel method of substitution for the same purpose.
Measurement of Characteristic Impedance (Z0) of a Transmission
Line Using Q Meter
• In Fig. 10.11(a), the transmission line or cable under test is tuned for series
resonance. Since the input impedance is low, the method of series substitution can
be used to determine Z0 = R0 +jX0 for the transmission line, as explained in the
previous section.
• The reactance/unit length of the line is the total reactance divided by the length .
• Series resonance occurs when the line is short-circuited and the line length is an
even multiple of a λ/4 and when open-circuited an odd multiple of λ/4.
• Parallel resonance occurs when the line is short-circuited and the length is an odd
multiple of λ/4, or open-circuited it is an even multiple of λ/4.
MEASUREMENT OF Q BY SUSCEPTANCE METHOD
• The coil under test is connected in series with a calibrated low loss variable
capacitor.
• With the use of the meter as an indicator, the circuit is tuned for resonance to the
oscillator frequency, by tuning the variable capacitor to a value Cr, a shown in Fig.
10.12(a).
• The capacitor is then detuned to a value Cbon the low capacitance side of
resonance at which the meter reading falls to 70.7% of the resonant voltage.
• Next, the capacitor is set on the higher capacitance side of resonance to a value
Ca, where the voltmeter deflection again drops to 70.7% of the resonant voltage,
as shown in Fig. 10.12(b).
• The points Ca, Cb and Cr are closer together when coil Q is high (sharp tun-ing)
and far apart when Q is low (broad tuning). The value of Q can be then
determined as follows.
• Ca and Cb are the value of capacitances at the half power point and Cr is the value
of the capacitance at resonance.
• At half power points
• Adding the two equations, we have
• In this method, the coil under rest is connected in series with a calibrated low loss
capacitor. The frequency of the signal generator is kept at a suitable value and the
output across the capacitor is measured by an electronic voltmeter. This method
requires less expensive components than the Q meter.
LCR BRIDGE:
• Basic LCR Bridge (Skeleton Type):A simple bridge for the measurement
of resistance, capacitance and inductance may be constructed with
four resistance decades in one arm, and binding post terminals to which external
resistors or capacitors may be connected, to complete the other arms.
• Such a skeleton arrangement is useful in the laboratory, since it permits the

operator to set up a number of different bridge circuits simply by plugging
standards and unknown units into the proper terminals.
• The schematic circuit diagram of a skeleton type bridge and its accessories for the
measurement of R, L and C is shown in Figs 10.13(a) and 10.13(b).
•
LCR BRIDGE:
• In Fig. 10.13(a), Rb is self contained. The other arms are completed by connecting
the unknown and standard component to terminals 1-2, 3-4, 7-8, 9-10, and 11-12,
a null detector to 5-6, and a generator to 13-14. This bridge can be used for both
ac and dc measurements.
LCR BRIDGE:
•
LCR BRIDGE:
• By proper arrangement of the bridge arms, the Wheatstone’s bridge shown in Fig.
10.14(a) may be set up for resistance measurement (ac and dc), a comparison
circuit shown in Fig. 10.14(b) for measurement of C, and a Maxwell’s
circuit shown in Fig. 10.14(c) for the measurement of inductance L.
• The skeleton bridge permits resistance measurements from 0.001 Ω to 11.11 MΩ,
capacitance measurements from 1 pf (if stray capacitance permits) to 1111 μF and
inductance measurements from 1 μH (if stray inductance and capacitance permit)
to 111.1 H.
LCR BRIDGE:
•
LCR BRIDGE:
• The bridge accessories are shown in Fig. 10.13(b). There are two
switched resistance standard boxes (one 10 — 100 — 1000 Ω
precision resistance and another 1-10 — 100 —1000 —10000 Ω
precision resistance), one switched capacitor standard box containing 0.001 —
0.01 — 0.1 μF a close tolerance capacitor, and four mounted dial
calibrated rheostats having values of 100 — 1 k — 10 k —100 kΩ
• For dc measurements 1.5 — 7.5 V batteries are used and connected to terminals
13 — 14. A centre zero 50 — 0 — 50 or 100 — 0 — 100 dc microammeter is
connected to terminals 5 — 6.
• For ac measurements of R, L and C connect a signal source or AF oscillator tuned

to a frequency of 1 kHz to terminals 13 — 14 and a null detector (head-phone, AC
VTVM, CRO, etc) to terminal 5 — 6.

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ELECTRONIC VOLTMETERS AND THEIR ADVANTAGES

 It is used for measuring the voltages of both the AC and DC devices.

 The electronic voltmeter overcomes this problem.

 The electronic voltmeter has high input impedance because of which it

 High-Frequency Range – The working of the electronic voltmeter is free from

 The applied voltage is

 This can be done by the help of the series resistor.

 If the series resistance is sufficiently high, the resistance of the tube is

 Thereby, the scale of the PMMC instrument is uniform and is independent of

 A series resistance of 105 Ω or more is used for the purpose of measurement of

 High input resistance and low power consumption

 Conversion to rms reading voltmeter

 Frequency range: not suitable for radio frequencies range

 It works on the principle of comparison between the reference and the

 The accuracy of the differential voltmeter is very high.

 The principle of operation of the differential voltmeter is similar to that of the

 Thus, the value of unknown voltage is determined.

 Definition: The Electronic Multimeter is a device which is used for the

 The multimeter name is given to it to define its ability to measure multiple

 In order to understand how a single meter can measure multiple electrical

 The electronic multimeter is one of the most versatile laboratory instruments

 The solid state version of the multimeter is described here.

 The multimeter basically consists of a bridge DC amplifier, rectifier, PMMC

 The rectifier is essential in a multimeter for the conversion of AC voltage into

 The internal battery and additional circuitry is for the measurement of

 The FUNCTION switch is to select various measurement functions of the

 The PMMC meter is connected between source terminals of the FETs,

 After this again, the PMMC shows no deflection.

 When the input is applied to it either by connecting a resistor or any other

 Therefore it is crucial to set the range of the multimeter properly.

 The resistance can be measured by multimeter easily by connecting the two

 The unknown resistor the resistance of which is to be measured is connected to

 The Amplifier connected in series amplifies the signal.

 The signal gets distorted as it passes through the circuit.

 In this way, the value of resistance is measured.

 The CRO is mainly operated on voltages.

 This luminous spot is produced by a beam of electrons striking on a

 The vertical voltage is the voltage under investigation.

 Thus, CRO provides a means of the visualising time-varying voltage.

1. Cathode Ray Tube

2. Electronic Gun Assembly

4. Fluorescent Screen For CRT

Their parts are explained below in details.

 The electron gun mainly consists a heater, cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating

 It controls the intensity of the emitted electron from the cathode.

 There are two methods of focusing on the electron beam.

 These methods are

 The CRO uses an electrostatic focusing tube.

 The screen of the CRT is slightly curved for larger displays.

 The inside surface of the faceplate is coated with phosphor crystal.

 The phosphor converts electrical energy into light energy.

 This phenomenon is called fluorescence.

 The aquadag is a conducting material and act as a high-voltage electrode.

 The coating surface is electrically connected to the accelerating anode and

 Thus, the dim spot is produced on the lightning screen.

2. Horizontal Deflection System:

• External In this trigger an external trigger source is required.

• Line In this method trigger is obtained power supply.

Intensity Modulation Intensity modulation can be done by inserting the signal

• Calibration Circuit Calibrating voltage has a square shape which is usually

 Storage targets can be distinguished from standard phosphor targets by their

 A mesh – storage CRT uses a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh

 The conventional scope has a display with a phosphor persistence ranging