Continuous Systems and Fields

13.1
Continuous systems
• So far all the formulations have been devised for
treating systems with a discrete number of degrees
of freedom

• There are many problems, mechanical in particular,

that involve continuous description

• E.g., elastic solid: each point of the continuous solid

participates in the motion, which can only be
described by specifying the position coordinates of
all points

• We have to modify the previous formulations to

handle such problems using concepts of field theory
 13.1
Continuous systems
• Recipe:

• a) approximate the continuous system with a

discrete system

• b) solve that problem

• c) take continuous limit

 13.1
Example
• Infinitely long elastic rod that can undergo small
longitudinal vibrations

• Approximation – an infinite chain of equal mass

points spaced distance a apart and connected by
uniform massless springs

• Mass points can move along the length of the chain

and displacements from equilibrium are small
 13.1
Elastic rod: Lagrangian formulation
m
• Kinetic energy: T  i2
2 i

• Potential energy: V   i 1  i 

k 2

2 i

i   i 1  i 
m k
• Lagrangian: L   2 2

2 i 2 i
 13.1
Elastic rod: equations of motion
m
2 i
 2 k
2 i
2 1
2 i
 2

L  i   i 1  i    mi  k i 1  i 
2

1  m 2  i 1  i   1
2

  a  i  ka     aLi

2 i  a  a   2 i
• Euler-Lagrange equations:

m  i 1  i   i  i 1 
i  ka   ka 0
 a   a 
2 2
a
m
• Linear density  
a
 i 1  i   i  i 1 
i  ka   ka 0
 a   a 
2 2
 13.1
Elastic rod: equations of motion
F  L
• The rod is elastic and obeys Hooke’s law: Y
A L
• Y – Young’s modulus

• The force necessary to stretch i-th spring:

i 1  i
Fi  k i 1 i   YA  ka  YA
a

 i 1  i i  i 1 
i  YA  0
 a 
2 2
a

 i 1  i   i  i 1 
i  ka   ka 0
 a   a 
2 2 Thomas Young
(1773 – 1829)
 13.1
Elastic rod: equations of motion
• Going from the discrete to the continuous: i  x
i 1  i  ( x  a )   ( x)
i (t )   ( x, t ) i 1   ( x  a) 
a a
 ( x  a)   ( x)   
 i 1 i    i 1   2

lim  lim  i
  2
x   x
a 0 a 0 2 2
a a a

• Wave equation
 i 1  i i  i 1 
i  YA  0
 a 
2 2
a
 2  2 YA
 2  YA 2  0 v
t x 
 13.1
Elastic rod: equations of motion
• Going from the discrete to the continuous: i  x
i 1  i  ( x  a )   ( x)
i (t )   ( x, t ) i 1   ( x  a) 
a a
 ( x  a)   ( x)   
 i 1 i    i 1   2

lim  lim  i
  2
x   x
a 0 a 0 2 2
a a a
1  m 2  i 1  i  
2

• Back to Lagrangian: L   a  i  ka  

2 i  a  a  

1    
2
   
2

L       YA   dx
2   t   x  
 13.1
Elastic rod: equations of motion
1    
2
  
2

• Lagrangian density: L ( x, t )       YA  
2   t   x  
L   Ldx

 d  d  2  YA '2

  '    L ( x, t ) 
x dx t dt 2

1    
2
   
2

L       YA   dx
2   t   x  
 13.2
Lagrangian formulation
• General 1D case: L(t )   L  , , ' , x, t dx

• Action: I   L(t )dt   L  , , ' , x, t dxdt

• Variational principle:  ( x, t ,  )   ( x, t ,0)   ( x, t )

 dI ( ) 
  0
 d  0

dI ( )  L  L  L  ' 
t 2 x2

   dxdt   
d t1 x1       '  
 13.2
Lagrangian formulation
dI ( )  L  L  L  ' 
t 2 x2

   dxdt   
d t1 x1       '  


L  d  L  
t2 t2

t   dt  0  t dt   

 
dt
1 1

L  ' d  L  
x2 x2

x  '  dt  0  x dx   '   dx

1 1

L d  L  d  L 
       0
 dt    dx   ' 
 13.2
Lagrangian formulation
• General 3D case: x  ;   0,1,2,3
d
  
x  ct; x  x; x  y; x  z
0 1 2 3
dx

L  L  , , x  L   Ldx1dx 2 dx 3 I   Ldx 0 dx1dx 2 dx 3

dI  L  L  
     dx 
d        
• Integrating by parts:
dI  L d L  
       dx 
d    dx    
d  L  
      dx 
 dx     
 13.2
Lagrangian formulation
dI  L d L  
       dx 
0
d    dx    
L d L
  0
  dx 

• Field – an independent function of space and time

• There is no requirement that the field be related to

some mechanical system, (e.g. electromagnetic field)

• Lagrangian also contains information on the

conserved properties of the system
 13.3
Conservation laws L d L
 0
  dx 
• Calculating the full derivative:
dL L L L

       
dx    x
• From the equations of motion:
dL d  L  L d  L

       
 
dx  dx      dx x
d  L  L
        
 dx    x
• Combining total derivatives:
L d  L 

   L     
x  dx   
 13.3
Conservation laws
L d  L 

   L     
x  dx   
• If the Lagrangian density does not depend explicitly
on xμ this usually means that η represents a free field
(i.e. it contains no external driving sources or sinks
interacting with the field at explicit space points and
with given time dependence)
dT d L 
 
    L  
 
   0
 dx  dx 
dT0 dT1 dT2 dT3 T0  
   0  c  T  0
d (ct ) dx dy dz t

• Equations of continuity
 13.4
Hamiltonian formulation
• Hamiltonian formulation can be introduced in a
straightforward manner for classical fields

• This procedure singles out the time variable for

special treatment in contrast to the Lagrangian
formulation where the independent variables of time
and space are handled symmetrically

• Thus, the Hamiltonian approach for fields has not

proved as useful as the Lagrangian method
L


H H d  H 
    i    
H    L   i 1, 2,3 dx  i 