OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• Is a circuit that can perform such mathematical operations as
addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation.
• Three stages of op-amp: differential amplifier, Common emitter
amplifier, Class B push-pull emitter follower.
• The input stage of an OP-amp is a differential amplifier(DA) and the
output stage is typically a class B push-pull emitter follower.
• The internal stages of an op-amp are direct-coupled; no coupling
capacitor are used. The direct coupling allows the op-amp to amplify
DC as well as AC signals.
• An OP-Amp has very high input impedance (ideally infinite) and very
low output impedance (ideally zero). The effect of high input
impedance is that the amplifier will draw a very small current from
the signal source. The effect of very low output impedance is that the
amplifier will provide a constant output voltage independent of
current drawn from the source.
• An OP-amp has very high open loop-loop voltage gain (ideally
infinite); typically, more than 200,000.
• The op-amp are almost always operated with negative feedback. It is
because the open loop voltage gain of these amplifiers is very high
and we can sacrifice the gain to achieve the advantages of negative
feedback including large bandwidth (BW) and gain stability.
Differential Amplifier

• Is a circuit that can accept two input signal and amplify the difference
between these two input signals. 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
• Example: A differential amplifier has an open-circuit voltage gain of
100. The input signals are 3.25V and 3.15V. Determine the output
voltage.
Basic circuit of Differential Amplifier
• It consists of two transistors that have identical characteristics. They
share a common positive supply, common emitter resistor and
common negative supply.
Input Signals of a Differential amplifier
• The importance of a differential amplifier lies in the fact that the
outputs are proportional to the difference between the two input
signals. Thus the circuit can be used to amplify the difference
between the two input signals or amplify only one input signal simply
by grounding the other input.
Common mode signals
• When the input signals to differential amplifier are in phase and exactly equal in
amplitude, the common-mode signals are rejected (not amplified) by the
differential amplifier. It is because a differential amplifier amplifies the difference
between the two signals (V1-V2) and for common-mode signals, this difference is
zero. (V1-V2=0)
Differential-mode signals
• When the signals to a differential amplifier are 180 degrees out of phase and
exactly equal in amplitude. The differential-mode signals are amplified by the
differential amplifier. It is because the difference in the signals is twice the value
of each signal. For differential-mode signals, V1=-V2.
Double-ended Input Operation of Differential
Amplifier.
• A differential amplifier has two inputs so that it can simultaneously
receive two signals
• Differential input. In this mode (arrangement), two opposite-polarity
(180 degrees out of phase) signals are applied to the inputs of
differential amplifier.
• Common-mode input. In this mode, two signals equal in amplitude
and having the same phase are applied to the inputs of Differential
amplifier.
Voltage Gains of Differential Amplifier
• The voltage gains of a differential amplifier operating in differential
mode is called differential-mode voltage gain and is denoted by ADM.
The voltage gains of differential amplifier operating in common-mode
is called common-mode voltage gain and is denoted by ACM.
• Ideally, a differential amplifier provides a very high voltage gain
for differential-mode signals and zero gain for common-mode signals.
However, practically, differential amplifiers do exhibit a very small
common-mode gain (usually much less than 1) while providing a high
differential voltage gain (usually several thousands). The higher the
differential gain with respect to the common-mode gain, the better of
the differential amplifier in terms of rejection of common-mode
signals.
Common-mode rejection Ratio (CMRR)

• The ability of a differential amplifier to reject the common-mode

signals. Common-mode signals are usually undesired signals caused
by external interference. The larger the CMRR, the better the
differential amplifier is at eliminating common signals.
𝐴𝐷𝑀 𝐴𝐷𝑀
• 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = ; express in decibels 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10
𝐴𝐶𝑀 𝐴𝐶𝑀
1. A certain amplifier has a different voltage gain of 2000 and a
common mode gain of 0.2. determine CMRR and express it in dB.
2. A differential amplifier has an output of 1V with a differential input
of 10mV and an output of 5mV with a common-mode input of
10mV. Find the CMRR in dB.
3. A differential amplifier has a voltage gain of 150 and a CMRR of 90
dB. The input signals are 50mV and 100mV with 1mV of noise on
each input. Find the output signals and the noise on the output.
4. The differential amplifier has a differential voltage gain of 2500 and
a CMRR of 30000. A single-ended input signal of 500μV r.m.s. is
applied. At the same time, 1V, 50Hz interference signal appears on
both inputs as a result of radiated pick-up from the a.c. power
system
DC Analysis
of Differential
Amplifier
(DA)
• Find the bias
voltages and
currents for the
differential amplifier
circuit as shown
• In the figure, the transistor
is identical with βDC=100.
Find the output voltage.
• The transistors are
identical except for βDC.
The left transistor has a
βDC=90 and the right has
βDC=110. Find (a)Base
current, (b)Base
voltages. Assume
VBE=0V
• Most differential
amplifiers are biased
with a current source as
below. Find the bias
currents and voltages.
• A differential amplifier
constructed with PNP
transistors. Find the bias
currents and voltages
Overview of Differential Amplifier
Parameters of DA (or OP-amp) due to
Mismatch of Transistors
• Output Offset Voltage
• The DA (or OP-amp) may show some voltage at the output even when the
voltage applied between two input terminals is zero.
• Input Offset Current
• When the output voltage od DA (or OP-amp) is eliminate, there will be a slight
difference between the input currents to the noninverting and inverting
inputs of the device.
• this slight difference in input currents caused by a beta (β) mismatch between
the transistors in the differential amplifier.
• The difference in the base currents indicates how closely matched the
transistors are. If the transistor are identical, the input offset current is zero
because both base currents will be equal.
Input Bias Current
• Is define as the average of the two
dc base currents.
• The fact that both transistors in
the differential amplifier require
an input biasing current leads to
the following restriction
• An OP-amp will not work if either of
its inputs is open.
• The left transistor has βdc=90
and the right transistor has
βdc=110. find
• The input offset current
• Input bias current. Neglect VBE
• The data sheet of an IC OP-amp gives
these value: Iin(offset)=20nA and
Iin(bias)=80nA.
• Find the values of two base
currents.
• What is the output offset voltage.
Assume that voltage gain is A=150,
assume only βdc difference exist.
A.C. Analysis of Diffrential Amplifier
• What is Vout when
• vin=1mV
• Vin=-1mV
• Find the input
impedance and the
differential voltage gain
• Find the differential
mode voltage gain
Common-mode Voltage Gain (ACM)
• Calculate the CMRR for the circuit measurement shown below
• The data sheet of an OP-amp gives these typical values:
ADM=200,000 and CMRR=90dB. What is the common-mode voltage
gain?
• A differential amplifier has an open-circuit voltage gain of 100. this
amplifier has a common input signal of 3.2V to both terminals. This
results in an output signal 26mV. Determine common-mode voltage
gain and the CMRR in dB
• Find the
• Common-mode voltage gain
• CMRR in dB.
Input Offset Voltage
• Is defined as the input voltage that
would produce the same output error
voltage in a perfect differential amplifier.
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
• 𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) =
𝐴𝑣
• Combined Effect
• 𝑉1𝑒𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝐵1 − 𝑅𝐵2 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠
𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓)
• 𝑉2𝑒𝑟𝑟 = (𝑅𝐵1 − 𝑅𝐵2 )
2
• 𝑉3𝑒𝑟𝑟 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓)
• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑣 (𝑉1𝑒𝑟𝑟 + 𝑉2𝑒𝑟𝑟 + 𝑉3𝑒𝑟𝑟 )
• The differential amplifier has
𝐴𝑣 = 200, 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) = 3𝜇𝐴,
𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 0.5𝜇𝐴, and
𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 1𝑚𝑉. What is the
output error voltage? If a
matching base resistor is
used, what is the output
error voltage?
• The differential
amplifier has 𝐴𝑣 =
300, 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) = 80𝑛𝐴,
𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 20𝑛𝐴, and
𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 5𝑚𝑉. What
is the output error
voltage?
Operational Amplifier (OP-Amp)
• The following are the important properties common to all operational
amplifiers (OP-amps):
• An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier. The input stage of an OP-
amp is a differential amplifier stage.
• An inverting input and a non-inverting input
• A high input impedance (usually assumed infinite) at both inputs.
• A low output impedance (<200 ohms)
• A large open loop voltage gain
• The voltage gain remains constant over a wide frequency range
• Very large CMRR (>90dB)
Schematic Symbol of Operational Amplifier
Output voltage from OP-Amp
• The voltage gain of OP-amp.
• The polarity relationship between v1 and v2.
• The values of supply voltages, VCC and -VEE
Voltage gain of OP-amp
• The maximum possible voltage gain from a given OP-amp is called
open-loop voltage gain and is denoted by the symbol AOL. The value
of AOL for an OP-amp is generally greater than 10,000.
• The OP-amp are almost always operated with negative feedback, a
part of the output is fed back in phase opposition to the input. When
a feedback path is present the resulting gain is referred to as closed-
loop voltage (ACL)
OP-Amp Input/Output Polarity Relationship
• Vin=V1-V2
Supply Voltages
• The supply voltages for an OP-amp are normally equal in magnitude
and opposite in sign (±18V, ±12V, ±15V). These supply voltages
determine the limits of output voltage of OP-amp.
• These limits, known as saturation voltages are generally given by;

• Suppose an OP-amplifier has Vsupply= ±15V and open loop-voltage gain

AOL=20,000. let us find the differential voltage Vin to avoid saturation.
A.C. Analysis of OP-Amp
• Practical OP-amp
• Very high voltage gain
• An extremely small input voltage will
produce a large output voltage
• Very high input impedance
• Has very small input current
• Very low output impedance
• The output voltage is practically
independent of the value of load
connected to OP-amp
• Ideal OP-amp
• Infinite voltage gain
• It means that we can set
vin=0V
• Infinite input impedance
• The ideal has zero input
current
• Zero output impedance
• It means the output voltage
does not depend on the
value of load connected to
OP-amp
Bandwidth of an OP-Amp
• BW=f2-f1
• Every OP-amp has a bandwidth, the range of frequencies over which
it will work properly.
• The bandwidth of an OP-amp depends upon the closed-loop gain of
the OP-amp circui.
• Gain-bandwidth product (GBW)
• An OP-amp has a gain-bandwidth product of 15MHz. Determine the
bandwidth of OP-amp when ACL=500. Also find the maximum value
of ACL when f2=200kHz.
• An OP-amp has a gain-bandwidth product of 1.5MHz. Find the
operating bandwidth for the following closed-loop gains
• ACL=1
• ACL=10
• ACL=100
Slew Rate
• Is a measure of how fast the output voltage can change and is
measured in volts per microsecond (V/μs)
• Can be used to determine the maximum operating frequency of the
OP-amp
• Determine the maximum
operating frequency for the
circuit shown. The slew rate is
0.5 V/μs.
• Used to be amplify an input
signal to a peak output
voltage of 100mV. What is the
maximum operating
frequency of the amplifier?
Frequency Response of an OP-Amp
• The operating frequency has a significant effect on the operation of
an OP-amp. The following are important points regarding the
frequency response of an OP-amp:
• The maximum operating frequency of an OP-amp is given by;
• When the maximum operating frequency of an OP-amp is
exceeded, the result is a distorted output waveform.
• Increasing the operating frequency of an OP-amp beyond a certain
point will:
• Decrease the maximum output voltage swing.
• Decrease the open-loop voltage gain
• Decrease the input impedance.
• Increase the output impedance.
OP-Amp with Negative Feedback
Application of OP-Amps
• Inverting Amplifier
• Given the OP-amp
configuration, determine
the value of Rf required
to produce a closed-loop
voltage gain of -100.
• Determine the
output voltage for
the circuit below
• Find the output voltage for the circuit shown
• Find the output voltage for the circuit shown
• Find
• Closed loop voltage gain
• Input impedance of the circuit
• The maximum operating frequency,
the slew rate is 0.5V/μs.
• You have the following resistor values available:
• 1k
• 5k
• 10k
• 20k
Design the OP-amp circuit to have voltage gain of -4
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Voltage Follower
• Calculate the Output voltage
from the non-inverting
amplifier circuit shown for
an input of 120μV.
• For the non-inverting
amplifier shown, find the
output voltage for an input
voltage
• 1V
• -1V
• Find the peak-to-peak output voltage
• For the non-inverting
amplifier circuit shown,
find
• Closed-loop voltage gain
• Maximum operating
frequency. The slew rate is
0.5V/μs
• Determine the bandwidth of each of the amplifiers. Both OP-amps
have an open-loop voltage gain of 100dB and a unity-gain bandwidth
of 3MHz.
• Find
• Closed-loop voltage gain
• Maximum operating frequency
Multi-stage Amplifier
• The resistor values are
• Rf=47o
• R1=4.3k
• R2=33k
• R3=33k
• Find the output voltage for an input of 80μV
• A three-stage OP-amp circuit is required to provide voltage gains of
+10, -19 and -27. design the OP-amp circuit. Use a 270kΩ feedback
for all three circuits. What output voltage will result for an input of
150μV?
• Show the connection of
three OP-amp stages
using an LM348 IC to
provide outputs that are
10, 20, and 0 times larger
than the input and 180
degrees out of phase with
respect to input. Use a
feedback resistor of
Rf=500kΩ in all stages.
Effect of Negative Feedback on OP-Amp
Impedance
• Advantages of negative feedback are
• Stable gain
• Less distortion
• Increased bandwidth
• Affecting the input impedance and output impedance of he circuit.
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Voltage-follower impedances
Inverting Amplifier
• Determine the input and output
impedances of the amplifier. The OP-amp
data sheet give Zin-2MΩ, Zout=75Ω and
open loop gain of 200,000
• Find the closed-loop voltage gain
• Used in voltage follower arrangement.
Determine the input and output
impedance
• Find the values of the input and output impedances. Also determine
the closed-loop voltage gain. The OP-amp has the following
parameters:
• Zin=4MΩ
• Zout=50Ω
• AOL=50000
Faults in Feedback Circuit
Summing Amplifiers
• Determine the output voltage for
the summing amplifier
• Determine the output voltage for the summing amplifier
• Determine the output voltage for the summing amplifier
• Two voltages of +0.6V and -1.4V are applied to the two input resistors
of summing amplifier. The respective resistors are 400kΩ and 100kΩ
and feedback resistor is 200kΩ. Determine the output voltage.
• Determine the output voltage for the circuit shown for each of the
following input combinations:
• Calculate the output voltage for the circuit shown. The inputs are
V1=50sin(1000T)mV and V2=10sin(3000t)mV.
OP-Amp Integrator
• Shows the OP-amp integrator and the square wave input. Find the
output voltage.
• Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in response to a
single pulse input to the integrator circuit.
• For the integrator circuit shown, how long does it take for the output
to reach saturation?
OP-Amp Differentiator
• Show the square wave input to a differentiator circuit. Find the
output voltage if input goes from 0V to 5V in 0.1ms.
• Determine the output voltage if the input goes from 0V to 10V in
0.4s. Assume the input voltage changes at constant rate.
• For the differentiator circuit shown.
• Determine the expression for the output voltage
• The output voltage for the given input.
Difference Amplifier
• An ideal difference amplifier amplifies only the difference between
two signals;
• It rejects any common signals to the two input terminals.
Amplifier with a T-Network
Instrumentation Amplifier
• Is a difference voltage-gain device that amplifies the difference
between the voltages existing at its two input terminals.
• The main purpose of an instrumentation amplifier is to amplify small
signals that may be riding on large common-mode voltage.
• The key characteristics are high input impedance, high common-
mode rejection, low output offset, and low output impedance
Instrumentation Amplifier
Logarithm and anti-log amplifier
• The operation of log and antilog amplifiers is based on the nonlinear
(logarithmic) characteristics of a pn-junction.
• A log amplifier has a pn junction in the feedback loop
• An antilog amplifier has a pn junction in series with the input.
Comparator
• A comparator is a specialized op-amp circuit that compares two input
voltages and produces an output that is always at either one of two states
indicating the greater or less than relationship between the inputs.
• In an op-amp comparator, when the input voltage exceeds a specified
reference voltage, the output changes state.
• Hysteresis gives an op-amp noise immunity.
• Characteristic of a circuit in which two different trigger levels create an offset or lag
in switching action.
• A comparator switches to one state when the input reaches the upper
trigger point (UTP) and back to the other state when the input drops below
the lower trigger point (LTP).
• The difference between the UTP and the LTP is the hysteresis voltage.
• Bounding limits the output amplitude of a comparator.
Zero Level Detection
Nonzero-Level Detection
Effect of Input Noise on Comparator Operation
Comparator with Positive Feedback for
Hysteresis
• Determine the upper and lower trigger points for the comparator
circuit. Assume that +VOUT(max)=+5V and –VOUT(max)=-5V.
Output Bounding
• Determine the output voltage waveform
 Digital to Analog Converter
• Let Rf=10kΩ, R1=10kΩ,
R2=20kΩ, R3=40kΩ,
R4=80kΩ. Obtain the
analog output for binary
inputs [0000], [0001],
[0010]…..,[1111]
Isolation Amplifier
• A basic isolation amplifier has electrically isolated input and output
stages
• Isolation amplifiers use capacitive, optical, or transformer coupling for
isolation
• Isolation amplifiers are used to interface sensitive equipment with
high-voltage environments and to provide protection from electrical
shock in certain medical applications
Transformer-Coupled Isolation Amplifier
• Determine the total voltage gain of the 3656KG isolation amplifier
Operational Trans conductance Amplifiers
(OTAs)
• Operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is a voltage-to-current
amplifier.
• The output current of an OTA is the input voltage times the
transconductance
• In an OTA, transcoductance varies with bias current; therefore, the
gain of an OTA can be varied with a bias voltage or a variable resistor.
Basic OTA circuits
A Specific OTA
• The OTA is connected as an
inverting fixed-gain amplifier
where +VBIAS=+V. determine the
approximate voltage gain.
Two OTA Applications
• Amplitude Modulator
• The input to the OTA amplitude modulator is a 50mV peak-to-peak,
1Mhz sine wave. Determine the output signal, given the modulation
voltage shown is applied to the bias input.
Schmitt Trigger