Facilitating of Human

Learning

Lecture by: Sophia Ampuan-Sharief, Ph.D.

 Psychology of Learning
• Chapter 1
• THE EARLIEST THEORY OF LEARNING
• Plato and Aristotle emphasized the role of
mind in acquiring knowledge.
1. Plato believed in nativism, which says that
knowledge is inherited, natural or innate
component of human mind.
• Nativism policy of favoring the interest of the
indigenous inhabitants: Reaffirming indigenous
culture: protecting and celebrating traditional
cultures
2. Aristotle was called empiricist because he
focus on sensory information as the basis
of knowledge. Importance of Experience of
the sense in pursuit of Knowledge.
• Empiricist observer, experimenter, realist,
researcher ( down to earth)
• He formulated the following laws of association:
1. Laws of similarity- recall of the similarity
2. Law of Contrast – recall of things that are
opposite
3. Law of Contiguity- recall of an activities
related to a previous one. Continuous
• Later Notion on Learning:
1. Rene Descartes studied the relationship
between mind and body.
• The father/first modern philosopher, He
believed science and mathematics could
explain and predict events in the physical world.
• Proposed the idea that existence had a dual
nature: One physical, the other mental
2. John Locke believe the mind of the child is a
tabular rasa. ( Empty Slate/Blank sheet)
• The belief that knowledge comes from
everyday experience, scientific observation,
and common sense, rather than from the
application of reason alone.
3. Franz Joseph Gall examined the shape of the skull and
concluded that its faculties are located in specific parts
of the brain. His study is called phrenology.

• Phrenology—the study
of the shape and size
of the skull as a
supposed indication of
character and mental
faculties. The skull
illustrated here
numbers regions.
 4. Charles Darwin introduce the study of evolution.
Origin of species
• He asserting that
humans and apes had
evolved from a
common ancestor.
Many critics of Darwin
misunderstood his
theory to mean that
people had descended
directly from apes.
CARICATURE OF CHARLES DARWIN AS AN APE
• 5. Herman Ebbinghaus stated that
learning and memory can be
studied experimentally.
• A pioneer in the field of experimental
psychology, he performed important
experiments on the value of repetition
in memory, He also devised the
Ebbinghaus completion method tests for
measuring the intelligence of children.
• Sigmund Freud
• developed a theory of personality
and a system of psychotherapy
known as psychoanalysis. According
to this theory, people are strongly
influenced by unconscious forces,
including innate sexual and
aggressive drives.
• Nature of learning
• Learning often takes place without our realizing it.
• Life consist of continuous experience. Some
skills are learned others skills are not
considered as learned, like discrimination.
• What is Learning?
• Learning means gaining knowledge or skill.
• Learning can result from vicarious as well as
direct experience. One can be affected by
observing events and behaviour in the
environment.
• Changes produced by learning are not always
positive in nature.
 Understanding learning and knowledge
Acquisition
• Definition of Learning
• Is the acquisition and development of
memories and behaviours, including
skills, knowledge, understanding, values
and wisdom.
• It is the goal of education and product of
experience.
• It is there relatively permanent change in
behaviour.
• Other definitions:
• A process inferred from relatively stable
changes in behaviour that result
through practice or interaction with and
adaptation to the environment
(Goodwin and Klausmeier).
• The development of the new associations as
a result of experience
• ( Good and Grophy).
• The modification of an organism’s behaviour
as result of maturation and environmental
experience. (Garrison and Magoon).
• Theories of learning
• A theory is a set of interrelated construct,
concepts, principle, and hypotheses
which attempt to explain predict or
control a set of phenomenon.
• A theory of learning describe, explain, or
predict conditions under which learning
does or does not occur, and the very
nature f the learning process.
• Ex: the relationship between teachers’
behaviour and students’ learning process
• Essential aspect of the learning process
(Mowley)
1. Motivation-
2. Goal readiness-
3. Readiness
4. Obstacle-
5. Responses-
1. Motivation- one response to any Stimulus
is directly to strengthen one motives.
2. Goal readiness- behaviour , being
purposive, is oriented towards a goal.
3. Readiness depends on training, experience
and heredity . It related according to:
• Physiological factor (Maturation in sense),
• Psychological factors
(motive, emotion, & self concept)
• Experiential factors ( previous learned)
4. Obstacle-hindrances or deterrence
challenges the learner.
5. Responses- behavioral tendencies
according to one's interpretation of
situation.
• 2 types of learning curves
1. Positively accelerated -increased
2. Negatively accelerated- slow down decreases
• What do we learned?
1. Simple response
2. Muscular habits
3. Perceptual response
4. Motives
5. Attitudes
6. Emotional response
7. Problem solving
8. Language
9. Personality
• Chapter 2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
1. Sigmund Freud- psychoanalysis.
2. Erikson Psychological Development.
3. Lev Vygotsky’s theory of Development
4. Jean Piaget cognitive development
5. Lawrence Kohlberg moral development
6. Urie Bronfencbrenner-
7. Robert M. Gagne- (S-R structure)
8. Benjamin S. Bloom (S-R structure)
1. Sigmund Freud developed a theory of
personality and a system of
psychotherapy known as
psychoanalysis.
• Psychoanalysis is a method of
understanding mental life: based on the
ideas that mental life functions on both
conscious and unconscious levels and that
childhood events have a powerful
psychological influence throughout life.
• According to this theory, people are
strongly influenced by unconscious forces,
including innate sexual and aggressive
drives.
The Mind as an Iceberg
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, compared the human
mind to an iceberg. The tip above the water represents
consciousness, and the vast region below the surface symbolizes the
unconscious mind. Freud’s three basic personality structures—id,
ego, and superego—only the id is totally unconscious.
• EGO “self-esteem”: somebody's idea of his or
her own importance or worth, usually of an
appropriate level.
• Superego “conscience”, the part of the mind
that acts as a conscience to the ego, developing
moral standards and rules through contact with
parents and society.
• Id is the theoretical part of human psyche: the
part of the psyche that is unconscious and the
source of primitive instinctive impulses and
drives. Human soul
• psyche is the human soul or spirit: the human
mind as the center of thought and behavior
2. Erikson Psychological Development.
• Believed human development is moulded by
the way people deal with a series of basic
development needs as they grow older. These
needs must be provided for by society.
(Interaction bet. Psychological & social Forces)
• Eric Erikson is known for “identity crisis”. He
formulated a theory of social-emotional
development based on his extensive experience
in psychotherapy and dealings with children
and adolescents from all social class levels.
• He proposed that socialization consists of “the
eight stages of man” each stage involves a
“psycho-social stages of Development/crisis”.
•
1. Trust versus Mistrust Stageb (0-1 year) HOPE
2. Autonomy vs. Shame& Doubt (2-3 yrs) WILL POWER
3. Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years) PURPOSE
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to puberty) COMPETENCY
5. Identity vs. Identity Diffusion (13-20, adolescence)
FIDELITY
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (over 20, young adult) LOVE
7. Generativity vs. Self-Absorption (adulthood) CARE
8. Integrity vs Despair (mature adulthood) WISDOM
2. Lev Vygotsky’s theory of Development
• whose work on language and linguistic
development is based on his supposition
that higher cognitive processes are a
product of social development.
• Vygotsky turned to symbolic processes in
language. He focused on the semantic
structure of words and the way in which
meanings of words change from emotive
to concrete before becoming more
abstract.
• 3 Basic Principles:
1. Zone Proximal Development difficult
tasks can be mastered or learned with
guidance and supervision of adults or
more skilled children.
2. Scaffolding changing support over the
course of teaching session.
3. Language and Thoughts children use
language and communication with
other before they can focus inward on
their thought.
3. Jean Piaget Cognitive Development CD
• The principle goal of education in the schools
should be creating men and women who are
capable of doing new things, not simply
repeating what other generation have done.
• Piaget theory centered on the stages of cognitive
development. He described 4 stages of CD.
• considered the development of the intellect
occurring in four sequential stages that form a
continuum of mental processes which
increasingly become more sophisticated as the
individual grows and develops. (Piaget, 1948)
• 4 Stages of the Mental growth
• “Cognitive Development”
1. Sensorimotor period (0-2)-
Infant learn about the world through their sense
and motor behaviour. Reflexes ,preverbal.
2. Preoperational period (2-7)- “Verbal Skills”
Child begins to think about object that are not
physically present. Use symbolic representation.
3. Concrete operational period (7-11)-
use mental representation to think about physical
object and event but not able to think abstractly.
4. Formal operational period (11-adulthood) –
develops the ability to understand verbal
statement and propositions. “ reason Logically”
4. Lawrence Kohlberg Moral Development
(MD)
• Right action tends to be defined in
terms of general individual
• proposed six (6) stages of moral
development/ evolution. This first three
of which share many features with the
stages in the Piagetian model. He
believes that moral development takes
place through a series of six stages
under three levels of development:
1. Pre-Conventional Level
• Stage 1 Obedience and Punishment
Orientation
• Stage 2 Self-interest Orientation
(individualism, instrumentation and exchange)
2. Conventional Level
• Stage 3 Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
(interpersonal accord and conformity)
• Stage 4 Law and Order Orientation
(authority and social- order maintaining)
3. Post-Conventional Level
• Stage 5 Social Contract Orientations
• Stage 6 Principled Conscience Orientations
In the early level of development, children strive
to maximize pleasure and avoid
punishment.
This level consider the needs of others only to the
extent that meeting those needs will help
the child fulfill his or her own needs.
Next period, which is characterized by conformity
to social rules, the child demonstrates
respect for and duty to authority. The
child also seeks to avoid disapproval from
that authority.
As the child matures, his or her moral judgment is
motivated by respect for legally
determined rules and an understanding
that these rules exist to benefit all.
5. URIE BRONFENCBRENNER
• Sought to describe child development in terms
of ecological and cultural forces.
• In his model, environmental influences on the
child extend well beyond the family and peer
group, and include schools and other
community agencies, social institutions such as
the media, political and economic conditions,
and national customs.
• cultural values guide the skills and attitudes
that children acquire as they mature, and how
brain maturation influences the development of
thinking and feeling.
6.Robert M. Gagne
• Incorporated 3 component: taxonomy
of learning outcome, learning
conditions required for the attainment
of each outcome and the 9 event of
instructions.
• Gagne’s 9 event of instruction with internal
learning processes:
1. Gain attention - ex: calling student’s name/ Listen
2. Inform the learner of the objective, expectation or
learning goal.
3. Stimulate recall- of prior learning using prior information
4. Present the stimulus- Demonstrate the desired outcome
5. Providing guidance- promote in a
meaningful way of what to be learned into
long term memory. encourage discovery
learning.
6. Elicit performance- required the learner to
produce a performance that represent what
was learned.
7. Provide feedback- learner must know the
outcome and the error
8. Assess performance- evaluate and measure
9. Enhance retention and transfer – to retain,
recall, and apply to other general situations.
7. BENJAMIN S. BLOOM
• First to accept that learning capabilities
comprise three component domains:
1. Cognitive Domain
2. Affective Domain
3. Psychomotor Domain
1. Cognitive object classify from lowest to highest.
Evaluation-

Synthesis-

Analysis
Application

Comprehension-

Knowledge-
• 1. Cognitive object classify from lowest to highest.
1. Knowledge- recall of concept, method,
facts, theories.
2. Comprehension- lowest form of
understanding
3. Application- ability to use concept and
principles
4. Analysis – understanding the relationship
5. Synthesis- putting together various
elements in order to create a new whole.
6. Evaluation- making judgement based on
available data and information.
• 2. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
• Feelings, emotion, degree of
acceptance or rejection
1. RECEIVING- awareness and willingness to
respond & controlled or selected attention.
2. RESPONDING- satisfactory and willingness
to respond
3. VALUING- accepting a chosen value and
making a commitment to live by it.
4. ORGANIZATION- organizing a value system
which forms part of internalization process.
5. CHARACTERIZATION value system that
has been internalized becomes part of the
psyche.
2. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
• Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia
(1956) developed taxonomy of
objectives in the affective
domain. Affective phenomena
run through from simple
behaviors to increasing more
complex ones that require
organization and
characterization or
internalization. (Bago, p. 154).
• 3. Psychomotor Domain:
• Pertains to physical movement, which may
influence reflex, basic or skilled movement,
as well as perceptual abilities and body
language.
1. Performing under the guidance of the
model
2. Complex or overt response- ability to do
difficult task with some degree of
proficiency
3. Adaptation –using previously learned
skills to perform new but related tasks.
 Chapter 3 Schools of Learning theories
1. Association theory- from Aristotle introduced
the similarity, contrast and frequency.
Thorndike involved in learning is one of
stamping in and correct responses and
stamping out incorrect response.
2. Field theory-stress the role of cognitive
process
3. Functional paradigm- stresses the relationship
between learning and adjustment.
4. Neuropsychological- aim to reunite the
mental and physiological processes.
• Function of the theories of learning:
1. To develop concrete paradigm for
research design
2. To assist and evaluate problems in
the organization of knowledge
3. To identify the complexity the
complexity of human knowledge
4. To help in the reorganization of
prior experience
 Chapter 4- Theories of Learning
1. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism/ Associationism :
2. Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning or Respondent
Conditioning
3. Burrhus F. Skinner Operant Conditionings or Instrumental
Learning
4. Albert Bandura Observational Learning
5. Neal E. Miller and John Dollard Social Learning Theory or
Autonomic Conditioning
6. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory
7. Kurt koffka Gestalt Learning Theory.
8. Kurt Lewin’s Topological @ vector theory (Field Theory)
9. Jerome Bruner’s Theory
10. Information Processing Theory
1. Edward Thorndike’s
Connectionism/ Associationism
• Stated that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between
stimulus and response is formed.
• Human activity is based on association
between stimulus and responses.
• Thorndike formulated the law of effect,
which states that behaviors that are followed
by pleasant consequences will be more likely
to be repeated in the future.
• 4- PRINCIPLE OF CONNECTIONISM
 • PRINCIPLE OF CONNECTIONISM
A. Law of Belongingness- Strength of connection is
increased if the paired stimulus is familiar,
common, or possesses the quality of
belongingness.
B. Law of effect – connection between a stimulus
and response is made and followed by satisfier,
the connection is strengthen. ( rewards must be
presented for desire behaviour and if something
to be eliminated punishment must follow the
response.
C. Law of exercise constant repetition and practice
is valuable in learning. “Practice makes perfects”
D. Law of readiness-the more readiness the learner
has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will
be the bond between them.
2. Classical conditioning or Respondent
Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov):
• Ivan used Experimental psychology and
psychopathology in animals, with emphasis
on conditioned reflex.
• He is known for his experiment on classical
Conditioning.
• It is based on ADHESIVE principle which mean
that a response is attached to stimulus
through the stimulus occurring just prior to
the response so that the recurrence of the
stimulus will evoke or cause the response.
 • Classical Conditioning
• Stage1 Before conditioning
Bell ( neutral stimulus)
No Response
• Stage 2 –During Conditioning
Bell ( neutral stimulus)
Salvation
Paired with (unconditioned response UR)
Natural Response
Meat ( unconditioned stimulus)

• Stage 3- after- conditioning

Salvation
Bell ( conditioned stimulus) (condition response)
 3. Operant Conditionings or Instrumental
Learning (Burrhus F. Skinner)
• Reinforcement: is any behavioural consequences that
strengthens behaviour.
• Types of Reinforcement:
• Positive Reinforcement: these reinforces increases
response frequency .
• Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behaviour by their
removal.
• Primary Reinforcement: Food, water, sleep
• Secondary Reinforcement: rewards, money, grades, stars,
tokens, etc.
Immediacy of reinforcement. Correct response should be reinforced
within 5seconds or there will be no benefits.
4. Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)
He introduced the special mechanism of the social learning
theory: Observational learning or modelling.
• At an early stage of child, children imitate what they see and
acquire a manner of speaking or doing as those of the
people around them.
• Steps of Observational learning or Modelling Process
1. Attention or acquiring- pay attention in order learn
anything.
2. Retention- what is seen and heard is stored in memory.
3. Reproduction- translate the image into actual
behaviour. Imitate
4. Motivation- Motivated to imitate and have reason for
doing Something.
Bandura listed a number of motives:
Past Reinforcement Traditional behaviour
Promise reinforcement What is imagine/ incentive
Vicarious Seeing and recalling the model being
Reinforcement reinforce
5. Social Learning Theory or Autonomic Conditioning
Neal E. Miller and John Dollard
The factors of learning are:
1. Drive- impels the subject to act or respond to act
(physiological drives, biological or survival values,
acquired through learning or experience.
2. Response-is the reaction to the stimulus.
3. Cue-are the language or signal
4. Rewards-increases the probability of recurrences of
response.
Conflict theory
Approach-approach conflict-
approaching one goal means going
further away from the other desired
goal
Avoidance-avoidance Conflict –when
one goal is avoided, the other goal
approaches
Approach-avoidance Conflict – there is
only one goal with tendency to
approach and avoid at the same time
 6. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory –
Kohler published the Gestalt psychology where he
cited the relationship between the Gestalt psychology
and the field theory of physics. (integrated wholes rather
than isolated parts)
• Gaining insight Learning is a gradual process of
exploring, analyzing, and restructuring perception until a
solution is arrived at or successful.
• This depart from mere trial-and-error learning behaviour,
as there is a conscious effort to think.
7. Gestalt Learning Theory Kurt koffka)
the primary focus of this theory is on PERCEPTION
and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli. “The
whole is more than the sum of its parts”.
8.Kurt Lewin’s Topological @ vector theory
(Field Theory)
• The behaviour of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces operating
simultaneously in his life space.
• An individual has inner and outer forces that
affect his perception and also his learning.
– External forces or outer may include the
behaviour of the classmates and teacher)
– Internal or the inner forces- includes his
motivation attitude and feelings
• 9. Jerome Bruner’s Theory
also known as Instrumental Conceptualism.
Learning involves 3 simultaneous processes:
• acquisition,
• transformation and
• evaluation
• 10. Information Processing Theory
• The theory describes the psychological events
in term of transformation of information from
input to outcome. It stresses the value of
perception, attention and memory in the
learning process.
 Chapter- Type of Learning:
• Cognitive Learning
is concerned with the development of ideas
and concepts.
• Affective Learning:
• Involves with assimilation of values, emotional
reactions and acquisition of attitudes.
• Psychomotor Learning
• Understanding the external word through the
senses and muscles.
Cognitive and Meta cognitive factors of learning
• Analogical Process and Transfer of Learning
• The theory of Transfer of Learning was
introduce by Thorndike and Woodworth
(1901). They explored how individuals would
transfer learning in one context to another
context that shared similar characteristic.
• Their theory implied that transfer of learning
depends on the learning task and the transfer
task being identical. Also known as identical
elements
 Types of Transfer of learning
• Transfer of learning happens when learning in
one context or with one set of materials affects
performance in another context or with other
related materials.
• Simply put, it is applying to another situation
what was previously learned.
• Transfer is a very significant concept in
education and learning theory because most of
those concerned in education aim to achieve
transfer.
Type Characteristic
Near Overlap between situation, original and transfer contexts are
similar Refers to transfer bet. Very similar context
“Specific Transfer”
Far Little overlap, between situation, original and transfer setting are
dissimilar. Transfer bet context that on appearance seem remote
and alien to one another.
General Transfer.
Positive What is learned in one context enhances learning in a
Transfer different setting. Occurs when learning improves
performance in some other context.
Negative What is learned in one context hinders or delays learning in a
different setting. Occurs when learning context impact
negatively on performance in another.
Vertical Knowledge of a previous topic is essential to acquire new
knowledge
Horizontal Knowledge of a previous topic is not essential but helpful to
learn a new topic.
literal Intact knowledge transfer to new task
Figural Use some aspect of general knowledge to think
or learn about problem
Low Road Transfer of well-establish skills in almost
automatic fashion
High Road Transfer involves abstraction so conscious
formulations of connections between
contexts.
High Road Abstracting situation from Learning context
/Forward to a potential transfer context
Reaching
High Road Abstracting in the transfer context features of
/Backward a previous situation where new skills and
Reaching
knowledge were learned
 Metacognition-
refer to thinking about cognition (memory,
Perception, Calculation, association, etc.)
itself or think/ reason about one’s own
thinking.
• Metacognition- involve 2 type of knowledge
• 1. Explicit, conscious, factual knowledge; and
• 2. Implicit/ unconscious knowledge.
• The efforts of metacognition are aimed at
developing learner autonomy independence
and self-regulated learners.
 Motivational Factors in Learning
• Motivational
• According to Geen (1995), motivation refers to
the initiation, direction, intensity and
persistence of human behaviour.
• Rewards and Reinforcement
• Reward is that which follows an occurrence of a
specific behaviour with the intention of
acknowledging the behaviour in a positive way.
A reward often has the intent of encouraging
the behaviour to happen again.
 2 type of rewards
1. Extrinsic Rewards
Are external to or outside of, the individual
(ex.Praise or money). ( refers to motivation based
on what an individual thinks ought to be done.) /
for instance a feeling of responsibility for a
mission.
1. Intrinsic Rewards Are internal to or within , the
individual, ( Satisfaction or accomplishment).
• Reinforcement is intended to create a measured
increase in the rate of a describe behaviour
following the additional of something to the
environment.
 Intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation
• Is evident when people engage in
an activity for its own sake,
without some oblivious external
incentive present. A hobby is a
typical example.
• Coercion
• The most obvious form of motivation is
coercion, where the avoidance of pain or
other negative consequences has an
immediate effect. Extreme use of coercion is
considered slavery. While coercion is
considered morally reprehensible in many
philosophies,
• it is widely practiced on prisoners, students in
mandatory schooling, within the nuclear family.
• Ayn Rand, have been very vocal against
coercion. Successful coercion sometimes can
take priority over other types of motivation.
Self-coercion is rarely substantially negative,
• Self Control
• The self-control of motivation is
increasingly understood as a subset of
emotional intelligence; a person may
be highly intelligent.
• Victor Vroom’s “expectancy theory”
provides an account of when people
will decide whether to exert self
control to pursue a particular goal.
• Drives and desires can be described as a
deficiency or need that activates
behaviour that aimed at a goal or an
incentive.
• Basic drives could be sparked by
deficiencies such as hunger, which
motivates a person to seek food;
• more subtle drives might be the desire
for praise and approval, which motivates
a person to behave in a manner pleasing
to others.
• Interest Theory
• Holland Codes are used in the assessment
of interests as in Vocational Preference
Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985).
• One way to look at interests is that if a
person has a very strong interest in one of the
6 Holland areas, then obtaining outcomes in
that area will be very strongly reinforcing
relative to obtaining outcomes in that area
will be very strongly reinforcing relative to
obtaining outcomes in areas of weak
interest.
• Motivational Theories
•

• Drive Reduction Theories

• The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of
the concept that we have certain biological
needs, such as hunger. As time passes the
strength of the drive increases as it is not
satisfied. Then as we satisfy that drive by
fulfilling its desire, such as eating, the
drive’s strength is reduced.
• It is based on the theories of Freud and the
idea of feedback control systems, such as a
thermostat.
• The first problem is that it does not
explain how Secondary Reinforces
reduce drive. For example, money does
not satisfy any biological or psychological
need but reduces drive on a regular basis
through a pay check.
• Secondly, if the drive reduction theory
held true we would not be able to
explain how a hungry human being can
prepare a meal without eating the food
before they finished cooking it.
• Cognitive dissonance theory
• Suggested by Leon Festinger, this
occurs when an individual experiences
some degree of discomfort resulting from
an incompatibility between two
cognitions.
• For example, of cognitive dissonance is
when a belief and behaviour are in
conflict. A person may believe smoking is
bad for one’s health and yet continues to
smoke.
• Affective-Arousal Theories
• Need Achievement Theory
• David McClelland’s achievement
motivation theory envisages that a person
has need for three things but people
differ in degree in which the various
needs influence their behaviour:
• need for achievement,
• need for power, and
• need for affiliation.
• Need Theories
• Need Hierarchy Theory
• Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human
needs theory is the most widely discussed
theory of motivation.
• The theory can be summarized as thus:
• Human beings have wants and desires
which influence their behaviour; only
unsatisfied needs can influence behaviour,
satisfied needs cannot.
• Since needs are many, they are arranged
in order of importance, from the basic to
the complex.
• The person advances to the next level of
needs only after the lower level need is
at least minimally satisfied.
• The further the progress up the
hierarchy, the more individuality,
humanness and psychological health a
person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to
most complex (highest, latest) are as follows:

Self actualization

Self esteem

Social

Safety and Security

Physiological
 Frederick Herzberg’s two factor theories,
concludes that certain factors in the
workplace result in job satisfaction, while others do
not, but if absent lead to dissatisfaction.
• Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition,
responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
• Hygiene factors; (e.g. status, job security, salary
and fringe benefits) which do not motivate if
present, but if absent will result in demotivation.
• The name Hygiene factors is used because, like
hygiene, the presence will not make you healthier,
but absence can cause health deterioration. The
theory is sometimes called the “Motivator-Hygiene
Theory.”
• Herberg’s two factor theory has proven more
powerful than Maslow since its concepts are
simpler to understand.
• Steve Bicknell did considerable research into
Employee Engagement Data; found there was a
common theme between low hygiene – high
motivator and low Employee Engagement.
• Employees consistently recorded low scores
against management/leadership –
• Employees were optimistic about success but
happy to complain about leadership since their
hygiene factors had not been addressed.
• Alderfer’s ERG theory
• Created by Clayton Alderfer, Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs was expanded, leading to
his ERG theory (existence, relatedness and
growth).
• Physiological and safety, the lower order needs,
are placed in the existence category,
• Love and self esteem needs in the relatedness
category.
• The growth category contained the self
actualization and self esteem needs.
• Self-determination theory (SDT)
• Self-determination theory, developed by
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the
importance of intrinsic motivation in driving
human behaviour.
• SDT requires active encouragement from
the environment.
• The primary factors that encourage motivation
and development are
• autonomy,
• competence feedback and
• relatedness.
• Cognitive theories /Goal-setting theory
• Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that
individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a
clearly defined end state. A goal’s efficiency is
affected by three features; proximity, difficulty and
specificity.
• An ideal goal should present a situation where
the time between the initiation of behaviour and
the end state is close in time.
• A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too
easy to complete.
• The goal should be objectively defined and
intelligible for the individual.
• Goal Theory – the central proposition of
achievement goal theory revolves around
the manner in which individuals determine
their goals in achievement settings such as
sport, PE, and the classroom.
• According to this theory three factors
interact to determine a person’s motivation;
• Achievement Goals
• Perceived Ability
• Achievement Behaviour
• Main Axes of Goal Theory
• goal theory has identified the following dichotomies:
• Mastery/Performance
• Mastery orientation is described as a student’s
wish to become proficient in a topic to the best of
his or her ability. Mastery orientation is associated
with deeper engagement with the task and greater
perseverance in the face of setbacks.
• Performance orientation is described as a student’s
wish to achieve highly on external indicators of
success, such as grades. The student’s sense of
satisfaction is highly influenced by their grades,
and so it is associated with discouragement in the
face of low marks.
• Task/ego involvement
• A student is described as task-involved when
they are interested in the task for its own
qualities. Task-involved students are less
threatened by failure because their own ego is
not tied up in the success of the task.
• A student who is ego-involved will be
seeking to perform the task to boost their own
ego, for the praise that completing the task
might attract, or because completing the task
confirms their own self-concept (e.g. Clever,
strong, funny etc
• Approach/avoidance goals
• Not all goals are directed towards
approaching a desirable outcome
(good grades).
• Goals can also be directed towards
avoiding an undesirable outcome
(being grounded for failure).
 IV. Developmental Dimensions of Learning
• Child Learning vs. Adolescent Learning vs.
Adult Learning
• Development of Learning Strategies and
Metacognitive Process
• Learning strategies refer to Students’ self-generated
thoughts, feelings, and actions, which are
systematically oriented toward attainment of their
goals.
• Therefore, implementation of appropriate learning
strategies is related to student’s self-regulation
behaviour which in turn should be encouraged by
pedagogical designs.
• Cognitive vs. Behavioural vs. Self-regulating
• Warr & Allan (1998) distinguish between
three categories according to the kind of
resources used in the regulation of behaviour:
1. Cognitive learning strategies: skills in
rehearsing a material to be learned or in
organizing it into main theme
2. Behavioral learning strategies: preferences for
seeking help from others, for trial and error
or for written instruction
3. Self-regulating strategies: controlling
emotions, motivation and comprehension
• Learning styles vs. Learning Strategies
• Issues regarding learning style are
somewhat related, i.e. students that
willing and able to think in more abstract
terms and/or to critically examine what
they do may show better performance.
• A learning style refers to the
relationship between individuals and
their ways of learning whereas learning
strategies refer to attitudes and
behaviour that is oriented towards goals.
• V. Socio-cultural Dimensions of Learning
• Theories of Situated Learning
• Situated learning has antecedents in
the work of Gibson (theory of
affordances) and Vygotsky (social learning).
• In addition, the theory of Schoenfeld on
mathematical problem solving embodies
some of the critical elements of situated
learning framework. Situated learning is a
general theory of knowledge acquisition.
• Principles of Situated Learning:
• Knowledge needs to be presented in
an authentic context, i.e., setting and
applications that would normally
involve that knowledge.
• Learning requires social interaction
and collaboration
• VI. Individual Differences in Learning
• Multiple Intelligence
• The theory of multiple intelligences was
developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard University.
It suggests that the traditional, based on I.Q.
testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner
proposes eight different intelligences to
account for a broader range of human
potential in children and adults. These
intelligences are:
 Multiple Intelligences
1. Nature (Naturalist)
2. People Smart (Interpersonal)
3. Number Smart ( Logical/ Mathematical)
4. Picture Smart ( Spatial/Visual)
5. Self Smart (Intrapersonal)
6. Body Smart (Bodily-Kinaesthetic)
7. Music Smart ( Musical)
8. Word Smart ( Linguistic)
• Learning/ thinking Styles refers to the preferred way
an individual process information
There are several perspective about learning-thinking
style
we shall focus on SENSORY PREFERENCE
• 1. Visual learner must see their teacher’s action and
facial expression to fully understand the content of a
lesson.
– Visual /Verbal- Visual-iconic are more interested in
visual imagery such a film, graphic displays or pictures
in order to solidify learning. “ good picture Memory”
– Visual/Nonverbal- also known visual-symbolic
feel comfortable with abstract symbolism. They would
like to read about things than hear about them
• 2. Tactile/Kinesthetic- learner
benefit much from a hands-on
approach, actively exploring the
physical world around them. They
tend to prefer “ learning by doing.”
• 3. Auditory/Verbal- they learn best
through verbal lectures, discussions,
talking through and listening to what
other have to say
• 4. Global- analytic Continuum
–Analytic- thinker tend towards the
linear, step by step process of learning .
See finite elements of pattern rather
than the whole; they are the “Tree
seers”
–Global – non linear thought and tend to
see the whole pattern rather than
particle elements. They are the “ Forest
seers” who give attention only to the
overall structure and sometime ignore
details.
 Roger Sperry’s Model
LEFT BRAIN RIGHT BRAIN

• the left –brained • Whole the right-brained

dominant individual is
portrayed as the linear
(analytic) verbal,
mathematical thinker.
• A successive processor
prefers to learn in step • A simultaneous process
by step sequential
format, beginning with
detailed leading to a
conceptual
understanding of a skills
person is one who is
viewed as global, non-
linear, and holistic in
through preferences.
prefers to learn
beginning with the
general concept and
then going on to
specifics.
LEFT BRAIN ( Analytical)
Successive hemispheric Style
1. Verbal
2. Responds to word meaning
3. Sequential
4. Processes information linearly
5. Respond to logic
6. Plans ahead
7. Recalls people’s names
8. Speaks with few gestures
9. Punctual
10. Prefers formal study design
11. Prefers bright light while studying
Right Brain ( Holistic or Global)
Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Visual
2. Respond to tone of voice
3. Random
4. Process information in varied order
5. Responds to emotion
6. Impulsive
7. Recall people’s faces
8. Gesture when speaking
9. Less punctual
10. Prefers sounds/ music background
while studying
11. Prefers mobility while studying
• Characterizing Students with Special Learning Needs

• An exceptional child is one that is different

in some way from the “normal” or “average”
child. The term “exceptional child “includes
those with special problems related to physical
disabilities, sensory impairments, emotional
disturbances, learning disabilities and mental
retardation.
• Most exceptional children require a lot of
understanding and patience as well as special
education and related services if they are to
reach their full potential of development.
• Terms and definition
• Disability- is measurable impairment (ex.
Walk, lift, hear or learn) refers to a
physical, sensory, or mental condition.
• Phil. Const. 1987, art. XIV, sec 2, uses the
word “disabled” in paragraph (5) “
provides adult citizens . The disabled, and
out of school youth with training....
• Handicap –disability is often dependent
on the adjustment made by both the
personal and his environment.
• Categories of Exceptionalities
1. Learning Disability- difficulty in in specific cognitive
process like perception, language, memory or
metacognition.
2. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
difficulty in focusing, maintaining attention impulsive
3. Speech and Communication Disorders
difficulty in spoken language including voice disorder,
inability to produce sounds.
4. Emotional/ Conduct Disorders-involves the presence
of emotional states like depression and aggression over
a considerable amount time.
4. Autism- is a condition manifested by different levels of
impaired social interaction, communication, repetitive
behavior.
6. Mental Retarded-refers to sub- average intelligence
and deficits in adaptive behavior
 Physical Disabilities and Health Impairment
1. Physical and health impairments
Medical condition
2. Severe and Multiple Disabilities
presence of two or more different type s of disability
3. Visual Impairment
Malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves
4. Hearing Impairment
ear or auditory nerves that hinder
5. Giftedness
significantly high level of cognition development.
Facilitating Human Learning

Learning style Learning strategy

Self-assessment Self-assessment

Field-dependent Field-independent

Cognitive level Plus meta-cognitive level

Learner preference Learner competence