Basic Electricity

Electrotherapy
Basic Electricity
Sreeraj S R
What is electrotherapy?
Medical therapy using electric currents. Also
called electrotherapeutics.
Electrotherapy, also electro physical agents
(EPA) are any forms of treatment or
assessment conducted using an electro
physical agent which can be applied externally
to the human body.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/electrotherapy
Robertson V, Ward A, Low J, Reed A. Electrotherapy Explained. 4th edition. Elsevier; 2006. p. 2
Sreeraj S R
Atom
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_edexcel/static_elec/staticrev1.shtml
Sreeraj S R
Atom
Electrons fill the lowest energy
shells
Atoms tend to have their outer
shell full
They may gain or loose
electron to achieve this.
If the atom gains an electron it
is negative ion.
(Cl-)
If the atom loses an electron it
is positive ion.
(Na+)
Forster A, Palastanga N. Clayton’s Electotherapy, Theory ans Practic. 9th Ed. W B Saunders; 2006. p 2
http://198.185.178.104/iss/electricity/pages/b11.xml
Sreeraj S R
Atom
Atoms can have an electrical charge, positive or negative.
This happens when an atom gains or loses electrons.
The number of protons never changes in an atom.
More electrons means a negative charge and fewer means a
positive charge.
Once an atom has an electrical charge it is called an ion.
In an ion the atomic number and atomic mass do not change
from the original.
If an atom were to gain or lose neutrons it becomes an
isotope.
http://www.universetoday.com/56747/atom-structure/#ixzz2dT7JQkrm
http://revisionworld.co.uk/quick-revise/5133
Sreeraj S R
Chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that
allows the formation of chemical substances that contain
two or more atoms.
The bond is caused by the electrostatic force of attraction
between opposite charges, between electrons and nuclei.
The number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom has
the effect on the reactions of that atom with others.
Inert gases like argon, krypton have complete outer shell.
Reactive gases are those elements are looking to
complete their outer shell so they are reactive.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond
Sreeraj S R
Compounds
A compound is a substance formed by the union of two
or more elements
They can be separated into simpler substances
by chemical reactions.
They have a unique and defined chemical structure;
They consist of a fixed ratio of atoms
Chemical compounds can be;
molecular compounds held together by covalent
bonds,
salts held together by ionic bonds/ electrovalent,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compound
Sreeraj S R
Covalent Bonds
A form of chemical bonding
between two atoms which is
characterized by the sharing of
pairs of electrons between atoms.
A covalent bond is formed
between two non-metals that
have similar electro negativities.
Neither atom is "strong" enough
to attract electrons from the other.
For stabilization, they share their
electrons from outer molecular
orbit with others.
http://www.diffen.com/difference/Covalent_Bonds_vs_Ionic_Bonds http
://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/PhysicalScience/Naming-chemical-compounds.html
Sreeraj S R
Electrovalent Bonds
Also known as Ionic bond.
formed from the electrostatic
attraction between oppositely
charged ions in a chemical
compound.
occur mainly between a metallic and
a non metallic atom.
Non-metals (-ve ion) are "stronger"
than the metal (+ve ion) and can get
electrons very easily from the metal.
These two opposite ions attract each
other and form the ionic bond.
http://www.diffen.com/difference/Covalent_Bonds_vs_Ionic_Bonds
http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/PhysicalScience/Naming-chemical-compounds.html
Sreeraj S R
Covalent Bonds vs. Electrovalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds.. Electrovalent Bonds..

are formed by mutual sharing of electrons are formed by complete transfer of
electrons
are made up of molecules. are made up of ions.
are usually liquids or gases. are hard, crystalline solids
are insoluble in polar solvents like water. are usually soluble in water.
are soluble in non-polar solvents like insoluble in non-polar solvents like CI4.
benzene or carbon tetrachloride
generally have low melting and boiling generally have high melting and boiling
points. points
are bad conductors of electricity. are good conductors of electricity in the
molten state and in aqueous solutions
but insulators in the solid state.
http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/science/what-is-the-difference-between-electrovalent-and-
covalent-compounds.html
Sreeraj S R
Static Electricity?
A stationary electrical charge
that is built up on the surface
of a material
After being rubbed, a plastic
ruler can attract paper scraps.
Ruler carries electric charge.
It exerts electric force on
paper
The interaction between
static electric charges is
called electrostatics.
Sreeraj S R
Insulators and conductors
In a conductor, electric current can flow freely,
in an insulator it cannot.
"Conductor" implies that the outer electrons of
the atoms are loosely bound and free to move
through the material.
Most atoms hold on to their electrons tightly
and are insulators.
Sreeraj S R
Insulators: materials that do NOT

allow electrons to flow through them
easily.
Insulators can be easily charged by friction as the extra

electrons gained CANNOT easily escape.
Static Electricity ppt
Sreeraj S R
Conductors: materials that allow electrons to flow

through them easily.
Conductors CANNOT be easily charged by friction as

the extra electrons gained can easily escape.
Sreeraj S R
Induction
• The production of a charge in
an uncharged body by
bringing a charged object - - - - - - -
close to it. induced
When negatively charged rod is charges attraction
put near a metal can... ++ +
• electrons of the can are + +
pushed away from the rod.
• top of the can: positive - -
- -
• buttom of the can: negative metal can -
• So there is attraction > repulsion
repulsion
Sreeraj S R
Induction
• Similarly, when
charged rod is close - - - - - - -
to paper scrap... attraction
• molecules of paper ++ + +
align paper
––––
• attraction between the ++ + +
––––
rod and + charge
• repulsion between the repulsion
rod and - charge
Sreeraj S R
Electric Fields
They are nothing but a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around a configuration
of charges.
General Properties of Electric Lines of Force

The lines of force or field lines
1. start from positive charges and end at negative charges. In the case of a single charge,
they may start or end at infinity.
2. two field lines can never intersect each other.
3. contract longitudinally.
4. exert lateral pressure on one another.
5. are perpendicular to the surface of a charged conductor.
6. do not pass though the conductor.
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-iv/electric-charges/electric-field-lines.php
Sreeraj S R
Electric Fields
If it is a positively charged body, then the If the body is negatively charged, then the
electric lines of force are directed away from lines of force are directed towards the body.
the body.
Sreeraj S R
Electric Fields
When two positively charged bodies are In the case of two equal and opposite charges,
involved, the electric lines of force gives a the lines of force clearly shows mutual
vivid picture of mutual repulsion. attraction, the lines move from +ve to -ve.
Sreeraj S R
Electrical Current
http://www.howequipmentworks.com/physics/electricity/basic_electricity/basic_electricity.html
Sreeraj S R
Electrical Current
Current
Voltage
Resistance
http://www.reprise.com/host/electricity/voltage.asp
Sreeraj S R
Current
amount of electric
charge passing a point in
an electric circuit per unit
time
Current is measured in
units called amperes.
6.241 × 1018 electrons, or
one coulomb per second.
The quantity of electricity
is measured in coulombs.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere
Sreeraj S R
In medical electricity the unit of current is in
milliamperes i.e. 1/1000 of an ampere
Sreeraj S R
Voltage
potential difference
across a conductor when
a current of one ampere
dissipates one watt of
power.
The unit of
measurement for
potential difference is
"volt".
Sreeraj S R
Resistance
electrical resistance is
something that “resists” the
flow of electrons/current.
Electrical resistance is
measured in Ohms (Ω).
Most circuits have more than
one component, called
a resistor
A measure of this limit on
charge flow is
called resistance
Sreeraj S R
Sreeraj S R
Resistance; Ohm's law
Ohm's law states that the

electrical current (I)
flowing in a circuit is
proportional to the voltage
(V) and inversely
proportional to the Where:
resistance (R). I = Electrical Current (Amperes)
I=V/R V = Voltage (Voltage)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
http://inspectapedia.com/electric/ElectricalDefinitions.htm#Resistance
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Physics/currentflow.htm
Sreeraj S R
http://www.howequipmentworks.com/physics/electricity/basic_electricity/basic_electricity.html#ohm_law
Sreeraj S R
Sreeraj S R
Sreeraj S R
Sreeraj S R
Resistance
The simplest combinations
of resistors are the
a) series and
b) parallel
http://cnx.org/content/m42356/latest/?collection=col11406/latest
Sreeraj S R
Series Circuits
A series circuit is a circuit in
which resistors are arranged in
a chain
so the current has only one
path to take.
equivalent resistance of
resistors in series :
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
The current is the same
through each resistor but
Voltage changes on each
resistor
http://physics.bu.edu/py106/notes/Circuits.html
http://cie-wc.edu/Series-and-Parallel-Circuits-4-11-11.pdf
Sreeraj S R
Parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit the
resistors are arranged with
their heads connected
together, and their tails
connected together.
1
equivalent resistance of 0.2+0.0714+0.0476+0.04+0.01 = 2.7 Ω
resistors in parallel :
1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3.....
The current in a parallel
circuit breaks up but
The voltage across each
resistor in parallel is the same.
http://cie-wc.edu/Series-and-Parallel-Circuits-4-11-11.pdf
Sreeraj S R
Electrical Watts
Watts is a measure of the amount of electricity being

used - a rate of electrical power consumption.
power (Watts) = current (amps) x potential
difference (volts)
For a current of 5 A and the potential difference of 12
V, the power is 5 × 12 = 60 W.
This means that 60 J of energy is transferred per
second.
http://inspectapedia.com/electric/ElectricalDefinitions.htm#Watts
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa_pre_2011/electricity/mainselectrev4.shtml
Sreeraj S R
Joule’s law
When a current passes through a conductor
some of its energy is converted to thermal
energy.
Joule’s law states that the amount of heat
produced in a conductor is proportional to the
square of the current in amperes (I2), the
resistance in ohms (R) and the time in seconds
(t) for which the current flows. i.e.
Q = I2 Rt
Sreeraj S R
Basic Electrical Components
Sreeraj S R
Resistor
A resistor is an electrical
component that limits or
regulates the flow of
electrical current in an
electronic circuit.
http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/resistor
http://www.mikroe.com/old/books/keu/01.htm
Sreeraj S R
Transformers
A transformer is an electrical apparatus
designed to convert alternating current from
one voltage to another.
The functions of Transformers are;
To alter the voltage of an alternating
current
To render the current earth free
http://www.acmepowerdist.com/pdf/Page_6-16.pdf
Sreeraj S R
Transformers, Working
Transformer works on the
principle of mutual
induction of two coils.
When current in the
primary coil is changed,
the flux linked to the
secondary coil also
changes.
Consequently an EMF is
induced in the secondary
coil.
Upadhyay D . Electrical & Electronics Engineering. Hindustan college of Science & Technology. Ppt presentation
Sreeraj S R
Transformers; Construction
The core, which provides a path
for the magnetic lines of flux.
The primary winding, which
receives energy from the AC
source.
The secondary winding, which
receives energy from the primary
winding and delivers it to the
load.
The enclosure, which protects
the above components from dirt,
moisture, and mechanical
damage.
http://www.navymars.org/national/training/nmo_courses/NMO2/module2/14174_ch5.pdf
http://www.emt-india.net/process/power_plants/Transformers.htm
Sreeraj S R
Transformers; Construction
Mainly Transformers have two
types of construction….
CORE type: the primary and

secondary windings are placed
on each side of the core.
The core type has two limbs
SHELL type: the LV & HV

windings are sandwiched
between each other.
shell type has three limbs.
Sreeraj S R
Transformers, Types
Step-up transformer Step-down transformer
http://keywon.com/wiki/index.php?title=AC_Circuits
Sreeraj S R
Transformers, Configurations
Static transformer
Variable transformer
Auto transformer
http://keywon.com/wiki/index.php?title=AC_Circuits
http://www.cybermike.net/reference/liec_book/AC/AC_9.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tapped_autotransformer.svg
Sreeraj S R
Sreeraj S R
Transformers, in Earthing
Using power without an isolating Using power with an isolating

transformer: Touching the live terminal transformer: Bridging between either
will result in a shock as the body terminal and ground is safe because there
completes a circuit between live and is no circuit through which the current
earth. can flow.
http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/nov06/articles/crosstalk_1106.htm
Sreeraj S R
Capacitor
What is Capacitance?
Capacitance is the ability of a device to store
electrical energy in an electrostatic field.
Or the ability of a component to store an
electrical charge.
The Symbol for Capacitance is “C”
https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&cad=rja&ved=0CGIQFjAH&url=http%3A%2F%2Fw
ww.hamptonhigh.ca%2Fhaas%2Fdocuments%2Fintro%2FCapacitors.ppt&ei=RgYuUpjYNcLWrQfb9IGoDw&usg=AFQjCNFzJkiINp
xXA1epNOtoJ8FhQcaO8g&sig2=fUpX1eYhXN5TWWr11HrtGg
Sreeraj S R
Capacitor
Capacitance is measured in Farads (F).
The Farad is too large for ordinary use so
typically the Microfarad of the Pico farad are
used.
F = Microfarad 1 F = 0.000,001F
pF = Picofarad 1 pF = 0.000,000,000,001F
https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&cad=rja&ved=0CGIQFjAH&url=http%3A%2F%2Fw
ww.hamptonhigh.ca%2Fhaas%2Fdocuments%2Fintro%2FCapacitors.ppt&ei=RgYuUpjYNcLWrQfb9IGoDw&usg=AFQjCNFzJkiINp
xXA1epNOtoJ8FhQcaO8g&sig2=fUpX1eYhXN5TWWr11HrtGg
Sreeraj S R
Capacitor
Also referred to as
a Condenser
It is a device for storing
electric charge.
Capacitors consist of
two conducting surfaces
separated by an
insulator.
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html
Sreeraj S R
Capacitors,working
When a capacitor is connected to a voltage
source current will flow until the capacitor
is fully charged.
The capacitor is charged with an excess of
electrons on one plate (- charge) and a
deficiency of electrons on the other plate (+
charge)
A capacitor discharges when the
accumulated charge is allowed to flow off
the plates.
The time taken for this discharge depends
upon
1. Capacitance of condenser
2. Resistance of pathway
3. Quantity of electricity
Sreeraj S R
Capacitors, electric field
The EF between the
plates of a charged
capacitor tend to take
the shortest route.
They repel one another
They rarely travel on
straight line
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VFPt_capacitor.svg
Sreeraj S R
Capacitors, oscillator circuit
An oscillatory circuit is
that of a condenser and
an induction coil in low
ohmic resistance.
Forster A, Palastanga N. Clayton’s Electotherapy, Theory ans Practic. 9th Ed. W B Saunders; 2006. p 35-36
Sreeraj S R
Capacitors, oscillator circuit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuned_circuit_animation_3.gif
Sreeraj S R
Capacitors, Types
Fixed Capacitors
the capacitance cannot be changed.
Variable Capacitors
the capacitance can be changed.
Sreeraj S R
Capacitors, Types
Fixed Capacitors
Electrolytic
Electrostatic
Mica
Ceramic
paper
Sreeraj S R
Capacitors, Types
Variable Capacitors
air capacitors
trimmers
Sreeraj S R
Thermionic valves
These are devices which
allow electron flow in
one direction only and
working using heat.
The cathode (filament)
heated o produce space
charge of electrons.
The anode (plate)
attracts electrons across
the valve.
Sreeraj S R
Thermionic valves
Triode valve
It is possible, using an
external circuit to make
the grid
– ve: repel electron to
stop the flow
+ ve: allows electron
flow through valve
Neutral: grid will not
effect electron flow
Sreeraj S R
Thermionic valves
Uses:
Rectification: as current flows in one
direction it is possible to convert an AC to DC
Amplifier: triode valve can be used as
electronic amplifier
Switch: triode valve can be used to break the
circuit.
Sreeraj S R
Thermionic valves
Sreeraj S R
Semiconductors
They are usually metals with the
addition of impurities have
electrons free to conduct current
n – type with excess of electrons
p – type with deficiency of
electrons so + ve ‘holes’
If a p- and n- type
semiconductors are fused
together current can only flow in
n to p direction
i.e. it acts as a valve
Forster A, Palastanga N. Clayton’s Electotherapy, Theory ans Practic. 9th Ed. W B Saunders; 2006. p37
Sreeraj S R
Semiconductors
Sreeraj S R
Transistors
Device that uses a small
amount of current to control a
large amount of current
(Current Amplifier).
They utilize a sandwich of p-
and n- type semiconductor
materials.
Electron enters at emitter
current amplified and passed
across through base
Electron leaves form collector
Sreeraj S R
Transistors
Sreeraj S R
Rheostat
Devices used to regulate current by altering
either the resistance of the circuit or
the potential in part of the circuit
Forster A, Palastanga N. Clayton’s Electrotherapy, Theory and Practice. 9th Ed. W B Saunders; 2006. p 39-40
Sreeraj S R
Rheostat
Construction
It consists of a coil of high
resistance wire wound onto
an insulating block with
each turn insulated from
adjacent turns.
Contact is made via a strip
from which insulation is
removed.
The contact is mounted on
a sliding bar or rotation
knob.
Sreeraj S R
Rheostat
Variable or series rheostat
If all the coils of wire in
rheostat are included in
the circuit resistance is
maximum and current
lowest
Used in regulating heat in
apparatuses like paraffin
wax baths
Sreeraj S R
Rheostat
Potentiometer or shunt rheostat
Wired across a source of
potential difference in parallel.
According to ohm's law greater
the PD across the a resistance
the greater the current produced.
When B at A no PD, so no
current
When B at C maximum PD as
in A
A current regulating mechanism
Sreeraj S R
General structure of LF
generators
Low J, Reed A. Electrotherapy Explained, Principles and practice. 2 edition. Page 19
Sreeraj S R
Mains supply
Current for this is
produced by dynamos
(electrical generator) at
power stations.
An EMF is induced by the
movement of a conductor
and two magnetic field in
relation to each other.
Dynamos can produce
either AC or DC
http://aaenvironment.com/Electricity.htm
Sreeraj S R
Mains supply
Advantages of AC
A greater voltage can be produced
Possible to alter voltage with static
transformers
So suitable for long distance transmission
Sreeraj S R
Mains supply, The grid system
Residential power supplied in India is two wire

220 volts, permitted variation 6%, and maximum
load 40 amperes. Frequency 50 Hz.
A three phase current is generated.
i.e. three coils of dynamo generate three separate
current.
Distribution of current via three live cables with a
common neutral cable.
These four cables carry current across the country.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country
Sreeraj S R
Mains supply
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electricity_grid_simple-_North_America.svg
Sreeraj S R
Mains supply, wiring in house
Distribution to customer is by one live wire

and one neutral wire
It passes through main fuses, meter, main
switch and to various circuits in parallel.
The light circuits have 5 ampere fuses for
each 4 to 6 points
The power circuit with stronger wiring with
15 ampere fuse for each point.
Forster A, Palastanga N. Clayton’s Electrotherapy, Theory and Practice. 9th Ed. W B Saunders; 2006. p 43
Sreeraj S R
Fuse
Metal cap
It is designed to be a
To mains live wire
weak point in a circuit
which ‘blows’ if a
current of too great Glass tube
intensity is passed. Silver fuse wire

This causes the circuit to
break
It consists of a wire of Metal cap
low melting point. To neutral wire

It is an safety feature.
Sreeraj S R
Fuse
In Physiotherapy department a Fuse is an
essential safety feature.
They are included in the
department wiring and
electrotherapeutic equipments
If a fuse blows, the apparatus which causes the
damage should be disconnected and the main
supply switch off.
Sreeraj S R
Power plug
Three pin plug most common
Sreeraj S R
Earthing of apparatus
Precaution against earth shock
Earthing the device casing with a low
resistance wire.
In the event of device casing comes in contact
with exposed live wire the operator can
receive a shock.
However earthing the casing causes the
current to leak through and causes the fuse to
blow.
Sreeraj S R
Electric shock
A shock is a painful stimulation of sensory nerves

caused by a sudden flow, cessation or variation in
the current passing through the body.
Severity of shock depends on
the magnitude of the current and
The path taken by the current.
Path taken through head, neck, heart or whole body
might prove fatal.
Shocks are more sever with AC than DC.
Sreeraj S R
Electric shock, effects
A minor shock leads to fright and distress.

A severe shock can lead to;
Fall in BP
Loss of consciousness
Respiratory failure: signs of cessation of
respiration, cyanosis
Cardiac arrest: signs of absent/abnormal
breathing, absence of pulse and fully dilated
pupils
Sreeraj S R
Electric shock, treatment
Following minor shock
Disconnect the victim from source.
Switch off current.
reassure the patient and allow to rest.
Give cold water to drink. (avoid hot water as it
can cause vasodilation and sweating leading to
fall in BP)
Sreeraj S R
Electric shock, treatment
Following severe shock
Victim is laid flat and allow easy breathing
Loosen tight clothing
Provide adequate ventilation
If the patient is unconscious summon MO.
If cessation of breathing give mouth to mouth, mouth to
nose or O2 by bag and mask
In the event of cardiac arrest cardiac message must be
added along with above.
Call for medical help immediately.
Sreeraj S R
Electric shock, causes
Sudden increase in current during treatment
due to:
Machine switched don with controls up.
Sudden appearance of pulsed current with the
intensity high
Patient touching the machine
Sreeraj S R
Electric shock, precautions
The apparatus and the connections should be
tested before use
Controls should beat zero before switching on
Provide adequate warm up for equipment if
needed
Instruct the patient not to touch the apparatus
Service the apparatus regularly
Singh J. Text book of Electrotherapy. 2 edition. Jaypee. 2012. p 64
Sreeraj S R
Earth shock
When a shock is due to a connection between the live wire or
earth it is known as an earth shock.
Connection to live wire can occur when
Wire is not properly insulated.
The live wire is not disconnected when the switch is put on
neutral wire
Live wire touching metal casing
Live wire is touched to wet thing
Connection to live wire can occur when
Touching any conductor connected to earth
Metal casing on apparatus
Sreeraj S R
Earth shock, precautions
Proper arrangement of physiotherapy
department with insulating materials
Proper flooring with insulating materials and
kept dry
Patient should not touch the apparatus
Metal casing of all apparatus should be
connected to earth
Use wooden furnishings
Sreeraj S R
Clayton’s electrotherapy, 9th edition
Textbook of electrotherapy, Jagmohan singh
Electrotherapy explained, Low and Reed
Visit www.slideshare.net/
Use key words: Sreeraj S R, electrotherapy,
Basic Electricity
Sreeraj S R
Thank You
Sreeraj S R

Basic Electricity

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Basic Electricity

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Electrotherapy

Covalent Bonds.. Electrovalent Bonds..

Insulators: materials that do NOT

Insulators can be easily charged by friction as the extra

Static Electricity ppt

Conductors: materials that allow electrons to flow

Conductors CANNOT be easily charged by friction as

Static Electricity ppt

Static Electricity ppt

General Properties of Electric Lines of Force

Ohm's law states that the

Watts is a measure of the amount of electricity being

CORE type: the primary and

SHELL type: the LV & HV

Using power without an isolating Using power with an isolating

either the resistance of the circuit or

the potential in part of the circuit

Low J, Reed A. Electrotherapy Explained, Principles and practice. 2 edition. Page 19

Residential power supplied in India is two wire

Distribution to customer is by one live wire

intensity is passed. Silver fuse wire

low melting point. To neutral wire

A shock is a painful stimulation of sensory nerves

A minor shock leads to fright and distress.

Вам также может понравиться