CHAPTER 8 :

SALTS
 A. Synthesising Salts

 The Meaning of Salt

 A salt is an ionic compound formed when
the hydrogen ion, H+ from acid is
replaced by a metal ion or an
ammonium ion, NH4+.
 H Cl Na OH
H Cl
Na OH
H Cl Na OH
Na OH H Cl
 Q
 Try This !
Write the formula of salts formed
from each of the following reaction.
 Sulphuric acid + copper(II) carbonate
 Nitric acid + potassium hydroxide
solution
 Hydrochloric acid + ammonium
hydroxide solution
 A
 Try This !
Write the formula of salts formed
from each of the following reaction.
CuSO4
KNO3
NH4Cl
 Examples of Salts.

 Examples of salts formed from their

corresponding acids
Acid Salt Example

Hydrochloric acid Chloride salt CuCl2, NaCl, KCl, PbCl2

Sulphuric acid Sulphate salt Na2SO4, CuSO4

Nitric acid Nitrate salt KNO3, NaNO3

Carbonic acid Carbonate salt CaCO3, ZnCO3

Uses of Salts in Daily Life
Field Application
Agriculture  Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4 ammonium phosphate,
(NH4)3PO4 are nitrogenous fertiliser.
 Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 and iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 are
used as pesticides to kill pests.
Industrial  Silver bromide, AgBr is used to make film and photography paper.

Medical  Calcium sulphate, CaSO4 is used as plaster to support broken

bones.
 Potassium manganate(VII) is used as antiseptic on wounds.
 Barium sulphate, BaSO4 enable the intestine of suspected
stomach-cancer patients to be seen clearly in X-ray films.

Food  Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 is used to raise dough for bread

and cake.
 Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is used to add flavour to food.
 Sodium chloride, NaCl and sodium nitrate, NaNO3 is used to
preserve food such as fish and prawn.
Soluble and Insoluble Salts

 Solubility is the ability of a

compound to dissolve in a solvent.
 Some salts are soluble in water while
others are not.
 The solubility of a salt in water
depends on the types of cations and
anions present.
 Salt Solubility in water
Sodium, potassium and  All are soluble
ammonium salts
(Na+, K+, NH4+)
 All are soluble
Nitrate salt (NO3-)
 All chloride salts are soluble in water except

Chloride salt (Cl -) PbCl , AgCl and HgCl

2 2

 All sulphate salts are soluble in water except

Sulphate salt (SO42-) PbSO , BaSO

4 4 and CaSO 4

 All carbonate salts are insoluble except Na2CO3,

Carbonate salt (CO32-) K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3
Determine whether each of the following salt
is soluble or insoluble in water

Salt Solubility ( , X )
1. Magnesium chloride
2. Lead(II) sulphate
3. Calcium carbonate
4. Zinc chloride
5. Silver chloride
6. Potassium carbonate
7. Lead(II) nitrate
8. Sodium sulphate
9. Ammonium chloride
10. Barium sulphate
11. Copper(II) nitrate
12. Copper(II) sulphate
13. Copper(II) carbonate
14. Iron(II) nitrate
15. Iron(III) chloride
16. Sodium carbonate
17. Ammonium carbonate
18. Silver nitrate
19. Tin(II) chloride
20. Zinc sulphate
State whether each of the following
salt is soluble or insoluble in water
Formula of Salt Solubility ( , X )
1. CaCO3
2. ZnCl2
3. Na2SO4
4. AlCl3
5. K2CO3
6. AgCl
7. BaSO4
8. (NH4)2CO3
9. CaSO4
10. PbCl2
Special Properties of lead(II)
chloride and lead(II) iodide

A
suspended
white solid
of lead(II)
chloride
(PbCl2)

A bright
yellow
precipitate
of lead(II)
iodide (PbI2)
 Preparation of Salts
 The method of preparation of a salt depends on
the solubility and the type of the salt.
Insoluble salts  An insoluble salt is prepared through
precipitation reaction.(double
decomposition)
Soluble salts Soluble salts that are not of Na, K and NH4+.
 Acid + metal oxide (or metal hydroxide)**
 Acid + metal carbonate **
 Acid + reactive metal **

Soluble salts of Na, K and NH4+.

 Acid + alkali *

* Titration Method
** Mixed together (acid need to be heated if necessary)
Preparation of Soluble Salts

 Soluble salts (not Na, K and NH4+ )

can be obtained from the reaction
between:
 Preparation of
soluble salt using
reaction between
an acid & a metal
oxide
Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.
Copper(II) sulphates
crystals

Unsuccessful product of copper(II) sulphate

crystals.
Copper(II) sulphates
crystals

Good copper(II) sulphate crystals

Purification of Soluble Salts by
recrystallisation
Q
 Write the chemical equation of each
of the following reactions.
 Hydrochloric acid + copper(II) oxide
 Nitric acid + lead(II) carbonate
 Sulphuric acid + zinc
 Hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide
 Nitric acid +calcium carbonate
 Sulphuric acid + magnesium
Q
 Name a acid and a metal, metal
oxide or metal carbonate that can
be used to prepare the following
salts.

 Copper(II) sulphate
 Lead(II) nitrate
 Zinc chloride
 Preparation of Soluble Sodium,
Potassium and ammonium Salts

 Soluble salts of sodium, potassium

and ammonium can be prepared by
the reaction between an acid and
alkali.
 Procedure
1. Using pipette, 25 cm3 of alkali solution is
measured and transferred into a conical flask.
2. Two drops of phenolphthalein are added to the
alkali solution.
3. Dilute acid is place in a burette. The initial
reading is recorded.
4. Acid is added slowly into the alkali solution while
shaking the conical flaks, until the pink solution
turn colourless.
5. The final reading of the burette is recorded.
6. The volume of acid added, V cm3 is calculated.
 …Procedure
7. The experiment is repeated by adding V cm3 of
acid to 25 cm3 of alkali solution in a beaker
without using phenolphthalein as an indicator.
8. The mixture is transferred into a evaporating
dish.
9. The mixture is heated until saturated and the
saturated solution is allowed to cool at room
temperature.
10. Salt crystals formed are filtered and rinsed with a
little of cold distilled water.
11. Salt crystals are dried by pressing it between
filter papers (or in oven)
 Preparation of Insoluble Salts

 Insoluble salts are prepared through

precipitation reaction (or double
decomposition reaction).
 Preparation of Insoluble Salts
Procedure...
1. The two aqueous solutions are added
together in a beaker.
2. The mixture is stirred with glass rod.
3. The precipitate of the insoluble salt is
formed.
4. The insoluble salt is filtered and rinsed
with a little distilled water.
5. The insoluble salt is then presses between
two filter papers to dry.
Preparation of insoluble salt with formula of AnBm

Aqueous solution
containing Precipitation method
Am+ ions (cation) (double decomposition Am+
reaction) Bn-
+ n AnBmm
Aqueous solution
containing
Bn- ions (anion)
Filtration

AnBm precipitate
 Preparation of insoluble
salt with formula of AnBm
Cation Anion
Example: Am+ Bn-
Pb2+ I-

Pb2+ First solution should

To prepare lead(II)
I- have Pb2+ (cation)
iodide, PbI2 , we will
and the other
need two different 1 PbI2 2 solution should have
solution.
I- (anion).
 You can use any soluble salt containing Pb2+ for the
cation, like lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2.

 And, any soluble salt containing I- for the anion, like

potassium iodide, KI.
 Preparation of insoluble
salt with formula of AnBm

Cation Anion
Am+ Bn-
Example:
Ag+ Cl-

Ag+ First solution should

To prepare silver chloride
Cl- have Ag+ (cation)
salt, AgCl we will need
another solution should
two different solution. 1 AgCl 1 have Cl- (anion).
 You can use any soluble salt containing Ag+ for the
cation, like silver nitrate, AgNO3.
 And, any soluble salt containing Cl- for the anion, like
sodium chloride, NaCl.
 Preparation of insoluble
salt with formula of AnBm

Cation Anion
Am+ Bn-
Question:
Ba2+ SO42-

1. What is the name of the salt? Barium(II) sulphate

2. Name one solution to get the Barium(II) nitrate / Barium(II)

cation, Ba2+? chloride

3. Name one solution to get the Potassium sulphate, K2SO4

anion, SO42-?
Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
 Ionic Equations

 An ionic equation only shows the ions

that take part in the chemical
reaction.
Q
 Write the ionic equation of each of the
precipitate reactions below.
1. Copper(II) nitrate solution + sodium
carbonate solution
2. Zinc chloride solution + lead(II) nitrate
solution
3. Dilute sulphuric acid + barium nitrate solution
4. Silver nitrate solution + hydrochloride acid
Conclusion of Preparation of
specified salt

SALT
YES
Is the salt
NO Use precipitation method
soluble?
YES
Is it an ammonium, sodium or Acid + alkali 
YES
potassium salt? salt + water
NO
React with:
• Acid + metal oxide  salt + water
• Acid + metal  salt + hydrogen
• Acid + metal carbonate  salt + water + carbon dioxide
 Physical Characteristics of
Crystals
 All crystals have these physical
characteristics:
 Regular geometry shapes, such as cubic or hexagonal.
 Flat faces, straight edges and sharp angles.
 Same angle between adjacent faces.
 All crystals of the same salt have the same shape
although the sizes may be different.
 Numerical Problems involving stoichiometric
reactions in the precipitation of salts

1. A student prepare copper(II) nitrate,

Cu(NO3)2 by reacting copper(II) oxide,
CuO with 200 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 nitric
acid, HNO3. Calculate the mass of
copper(II) oxide, CuO needed to react
completely with the acid. 16 g
[Relative atomic mass: Cu, 64 ; O, 16]
 Numerical Problems involving stoichiometric
reactions in the precipitation of salts

 X cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid,

H2SO4 is added to 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3
lead(II) nitrate solution to produce lead(II)
sulphate, PbSO4.
 Calculate the value of X. 200 cm3
 Calculate the mass of lead(II) sulphate
obtained. 11.6 g
[Relative atomic mass: Pb, 20; O, 16; S, 32]
Qualitative Analysis of
Salts
What is Qualitative analysis?
 Qualitative analysis is a chemical technique
used to determine what substances are
present in a mixture but not their
quantities.
 In the qualitative analysis of salts, we need
to identify the ions that are present in
salts.
 This can be done by analysing their
physical and chemical properties.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF SALTS
1. Colour and solubility in water
Salt Colour in solid Solubility in water Colour in Aqueous
solution
1. Ammonium chloride NH4Cl white soluble colourless
2. Ammonium nitrateNH4(NO3)3 white soluble colourless
3. Calcium carbonate CaCO3 white insoluble -
4. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 white soluble colourless
5. Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 white soluble colourless
6. Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 white insoluble -
7. Zinc sulphate Zn SO4 white soluble colourless
8. Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2 white soluble colourless
9. Lead(II) chloride , PbCl2 white insoluble -
10. Lead(II) sulphate , PbSO4 white insoluble -
11. Lead(II) carbonate , PbCO3 white insoluble -
12. Copper(II) chloride , CuCl2 Blue soluble Blue
13 Copper(II) sulphate , PbSO4 Blue soluble Blue
14. Copper(II) carbonate , PbCO3 Green insoluble -
15. Iron(II) sulphate , FeSO4 Green soluble Pale green
16. Iron(III) chloride , FeCl3 Brown / Yellow soluble Brown/Yellow/
Yellowish brown
17. Sodium nitrate , NaNO3 white soluble colourless
18, Sodium carbonate , Na2CO3 white soluble colourless
19. Potassium nitrate , KNO3 white soluble colourless
20. Potassium carbonate , K2CO3 white soluble colourless
The table shows the colour of different cations in the
solid form or in aqueous solution

Observation Inference

Blue solution Ion copper (Cu2+ ) present

Pale green solution Ion Iron(II) Fe2+ present

Yellow/Yellowish-brown/brown Ion Iron (III) Fe3+ present

solution

Green solid Hydrated Fe 2+, CuCO3

Brown solid Hydrated Fe 3+ salt

White solid Salts of Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca 2+ Al 3+ , Zn 2+, Pb 2+

(If the anions are colourless)

Colourless solution Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca 2+ , Al 3+ , Zn 2+, Pb 2+

 2. Tests for gases
Gas
Oxygen gas, O2
Hydrogen gas , H2
Carbon dioxide gas , CO2
Ammonia gas, NH3
Chlorine gas, Cl2
Hydrogen chlorine gas , HCl
Sulphur dioxide gas , SO2
Nitrogen dioxide gas , NO2
Test Result
Test with a glowing wooden Wooden splinter is rekindled /lighted
splinter
Test with a lighted wooden splinter Gas explodes with a pop sound
Bubble the gas produced into lime Lime water turns milky
water
Test with moist red litmus paper Moist red litmus paper turns blue
Test with moist blue litmus paper Moist blue litmus paper turns red and then turns
white
Test with a drop of concentrated Dense white fumes
ammonia NH3 solution
Bubble the gas produced into Purple acidified potassium manganate
purple acidified potassium (VII),KMnO4 solution decolourises
manganate (VII), KMnO4 solution
Test with moist blue litmus paper moist blue litmus paper turns red
 3. Action of heat on salts
Colour of salt Colour of residue Effect on lime water
Carbonate salt before heating
Hot cold
Copper (II) carbonate, Green powder Black powder Black powder The gas liberated turns lime
CuCO3 water milky

Zinc carbonate , ZnCO3 White solid Yelow solid White solid The gas liberated turns lime
water milky

Lead(II) carbonate, PbCO3 White solid Brown solid Yelow solid The gas liberated turns lime
water milky

Sodium carbonate, White solid White solid White solid No change

Na2CO3

Calcium carbonate, CaCO3 White solid White solid White solid The gas liberated turns lime
water milky

Potassium carbonate, White solid White solid White solid No change

K2CO3

Magnesium carbonate, White solid White solid White solid The gas liberated turns lime
MgCO3 water milky
Example :

1. CuCO3 -------> CuO + CO2

Serbuk hijau Serbuk hitam
2. ZnCO3 -------> ZnO + CO2
Serbuk putih Panas : kuning
Sejuk : putih
3. PbCO3 -------> PbO + CO2
Serbuk putih Panas : perang
Sejuk : kuning
4. 2Ag2CO3 -------> 4Ag + O2 + 2CO2
Serbuk putih Pepejal kelabu
 3. Action of heat on salts
Nitrate Salt Colour of salt Colour of residue Test on gases liberated
before heating Hot cold
Copper (II) nitrate, Blue solid Black Black A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is
Cu(NO3)2 powder powder liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Zinc nitrate, Zn(NO3)2 White solid Yellow White solid A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is
solid liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 White solid Brown solid Yellow A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is
solid liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Sodium nitrate, NaNO3 White solid White solid White solid A colourless gas that rekindles a glowing splinter
is liberated
Calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2 White solid White solid White solid A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is
liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Potassium nitrate, KNO3 White solid White solid White solid A colourless gas that rekindles a glowing splinter
is liberated
Magnesium nitrate, White solid White solid White solid A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is
Mg(NO3)2 liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Iron(II) nitrate, Fe(NO3)2 Pale Green solid Pale Green solid Pale Green A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is
solid liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3 Brown solid Reddish- Reddish- A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is
Brown solid Brown solid liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is extremely poisonous and corrosive. Avoid
exposure, in particular inhaling. This experiment should be done in
a well ventilated area. The reaction products from the glass vessel
should be released outdoors. Take care not to overheat the vessel.
Example :

1. 2NaNO3 -------> 2NaNO2 + O2

pepejal putih Pepejal kuning muda
2. 2Zn (NO3)2 -------> 2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2
Pepejal putih Panas : kuning Gas perang
Sejuk : putih
3. 2Pb (NO3)2 -------> 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
Pepejal putih Panas : perang Gas perang
Sejuk : kuning
4. 2AgNO3 -------> 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
Pepejal putih Pepejal kelabu
 The comparison of the effect of
heat on carbonate and nitrate salts
Metal Effect of heat on carbonate Effect of heat on nitrate salt
salt
Potassium Are not decomposed by heat Decompose to nitrite salt and oxygen
Sodium gas.
Calcium Decompose to metal oxide Decompose to metal oxide, nitrogen
Magnesium and carbon dioxide gas. dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Copper
Mercury Decompose to metal, carbon Decompose to metal , nitrogen dioxide
Silver dioxide gas and oxygen gas. gas and oxygen gas.
Gold
 Possible Deductions Based On The
Gas Evolved During Heating
Observations Possible Deductions
Carbon dioxide Carbonate is present. But not Na2CO3 or K2CO3 because they
produced. are stable to heat.
Organic compounds.
Ammonia produced. Ammonium salt is present.
Only Oxygen is NaNO3 or KNO3 is present.
produced. Oxidising agents.
Oxygen and Nitrogen All other metal nitrates e.g. Ca(NO3)2 , Zn(NO3)2 ,
dioxide are produced. Pb(NO3)2 , Cu(NO3)2.
Sulphur dioxide All sulphites SO32-, iron(II) sulphate
Colourless droplets of Water droplets is produced. Water of crystallisation from
liquid condensed on cool hydrated crystals e.g. CuSO4.5H2O, FeSO4.7H2O,
walls of test tube. Na2CO3.10H2O or water from thermal decomposition of metal
hydroxides
Q
Q
Q
Q
 Tests for anions
Reagent / Condition Observation Anion Ionic Equation (if
any)

2 cm3 the unknown solution CO32- + 2H+ 

Effervescence. CO32- ion
+ dilute hydrochloric acid / CO2 + H2O
Colourless gas
nitric acid / sulphuric acid 
turns lime water
pour into a test tube  gas
milky.
liberated is immediately
bubbled through lime water.

2 cm3 of nitric acid + 2 cm3

White Cl- ion Ag+ + Cl-  AgCl
of the unknown solution 
precipitate is
pour into a test tube  + 2
formed.
cm3 silver nitrate solution
 Tests for anions
Reagent / Condition Observation Anion Ionic Equation (if
any)

2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid /

White precipitate is SO42- ion Ba2+ + SO42 - 
nitric acid + 2 cm3 of the unknown
formed. BaSO4
solution  pour into a test tube  + 2
cm3 of barium chloride / barium nitrate
solution  shake well

2 cm3 of the unknown solution  pour

Brown ring is formed at NO3- ion -
into a test tube 
the boundary between
2 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid + 2 cm3
the concentrated
of iron(II) sulphate solution  shake
H2SO4 (top layer) and
well.
aqueous solution of the
Then drop carefully and slowly a few
mixture (bottom layer)
drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
along the side of a slanting test tube
into the mixture without shaking it.
 Confirmatory Test for Fe2+,
Fe3+Ions
Reagent Observation Conclusion

Potassium Pale blue precipitate Fe2+ ion is present

hexacyanoferrate(II)
solution Dark blue precipitate Fe3+ ion is present

Potassium Dark blue precipitate Fe2+ ion is present

hexacyanoferrate(III)
solution Greenish-brown Fe3+ ion is present
solution
Potassium thiocyanate Pale red colouration Fe2+ ion is present
solution
Blood red colouration Fe3+ ion is present
 Confirmatory Test for Pb2+

Method Observation Ionic Equation

 Using aqueous solution of chloride
- A white precipitate is Pb2+ + 2Cl-  PbCl2
- 2 cm3 of any solution of Cl- +
formed
2 cm3 of any solution of Pb2+ 
When heated – dissolve in
dilute with 5 cm3 of distilled water 
water to form colourless
heat until no further change occurs 
solution
allow the content to cool to room
When cooled – white
temperature using running water from
precipitate reappear
the tap

 Using aqueous solution of iodide - A yellow precipitate is

Pb2+ + 2I-  PbI2
- 2 cm3 of any solution of I- + formed
2 cm3 of any solution of Pb2+  When heated – dissolve in
dilute with 5 cm3 of distilled water  water to form colourless
heat until no further change occurs  solution
allow the content to cool to room When cooled – yellow
temperature using running water from precipitate reappear
the tap
 Confirmatory Test for NH4+

Method Observation

 2 cm3 of any solution of NH4+ + 2 cm3 of - Moist red litmus paper turns blue
NaOH / KOH / Ca(OH)2  heat  put a
piece of moist red litmus paper at the
mouth of the test tube

Reaction with Nessler’s Reagent - A brown precipitate is formed

 2 cm3 of any solution of NH4+ + 2 cm3 of
Nessler’s Reagent  shake well
 Test Cation with NaOH solution
NaOH solution
Add a little
Na+
No
Precipitate form? NH4+
K+
Yes

Zn2+ Al3+ Pb2+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+

White precipitate Blue Dirty Green Brown

Add excess

Dissolve  colourless Not dissolve

Al3+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+

70
Al3+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+

71
 Test Cation with NH4OH solution
NH4OH solution
Tambah sedikit
No
Precipitate formed? Ca2+, NH4+
Yes K+ Na+

Zn2+ Al3+ Pb2+ Mg2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Cu2+

White Dirty Green Brown Blue
White
Add Excessively Dissolve
Dissolve
Colourless Not Dissolve Blue solution

72
73
Al3+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+

74
Al3+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+

75