Major divisions of the nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS)

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Somatic (cerebrospinal) nervous system

Visceral (autonomic) nervous system (ANS)

- sympathetic division
- parasympathetic division

Satisfactory criterion for this is found only in the PNS. In the CNS we cannot easily make
difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
 Cranial cavity Vertebral canal

external layer of dura mater

No free epidural space! epidural space

dura mater internal layer of dura mater

subdural space subdural space

arachnoid mater arachnoid mater

subarachnoid space subarachnoid space

pia mater pia mater

 The meninges

Three membranes called meninges envelop the nervous system. At the CNS level they are easily recognized as dura
mater (pachymeninx), arachnoid mater and pia mater (the last two forming together so-called leptomeninges). At
the level of the PNS these membranes continue as the sheaths of peripheral nerves and ganglions.
The dura mater is the outermost and thickest of all meninges. It lines the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal and
provides support and protection for the nervous system within. It is made of two layers. The external layer serves as
the internal periosteum for bones that built the walls of the cranial cavity and vertebral canal. The internal layer may
be a separate structure (as it is in the vertebral canal) or may fuse with external layer (as in the cranial cavity). The
real space existing in the vertebral canal between the two layers of the spinal dura mater is called epidural
(extradural) space and it contains blood vessels and roots of spinal nerves bathed in fatty tissue. The remnants of
epidural space in the cranial cavity are only seen as dural sinuses, trigeminal cavity and pituitary cavity. There is
no free epidural space in the cranial cavity in a healthy individual. In pathologic condition however, this space may
form again when some contents, especially blood flowing out of torn meningeal arteries, will set the two dural layers
apart.
The internal layer of cranial dura mater in some places makes infoldings that protrude into the cranial cavity and
divide it into smaller compartments. These infoldings include the cerebral falx, the tentorium cerebelli and the
cerebellar falx. The two falxes are oriented sagittally and they intervene between the hemispheres (cerebral or
cerebellar, respectively). The tentorium cerebelli separates the cerebral hemispheres (occipital lobes) from the
cerebellum. The tentorium is attached to the grooves of the transverse and superior petrosal venous sinuses and to the
posterior and anterior clinoid processes. It divides the cranial cavity into supratentorial and infratentorial
compartments. Anteriorly the tentorium is notched to allow the brainstem to pass between the supratentorial and
infratentorial compartments. The supratentorial compartment is further partially divided into two halves by the falx
cerebri. Each half houses one cerebral hemisphere. Below the cerebral falx the telencephalon impar passes to connect
the two hemispheres. The falx cerebelli is not so prominent and it only marginally separates the cerebellar
hemispheres. In addition the internal layer of cranial dura roofs the trigeminal cavity and it also passes above the
pituitary gland as the so-called sellar diaphragm (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary stalk pierces sellar diaphragm
centrally.
 The meninges - continued

The arachnoid mater is a delicate membrane, which lines internal surface of the dura mater. It is pressed to the dura
but does not fuse with it. Between the two membranes there is a capillary (hair-like) space moistened with the tissue
fluid. This space is called the subdural space or cavity. It can become the true space if something (e.g. blood) will
accumulate within. Near the dural sinuses and some veins the arachnoid forms many specialized organs, which serve
as the sites of evacuation of the cerebrospinal fluid into the venous blood. These are called arachnoid granulations
(granulations of Pacchioni).
The pia mater grows together with the tissue of the nervous system. It is very thin but functionally important
envelope. It surrounds the vessels, which penetrate the nervous tissue giving them a bit of support. At some places it
invaginates deeply in the internal spaces (ventricles) of the brain and takes part in forming the choroid plexuses (the
organs which produce the majority of the cerebrospinal fluid).
The capacity of the dural envelope is greater than the volume of the nervous system. As pia mater shapes on the
nervous system and arachnoid mater shapes on the dura mater, there is quite a distance between them. This space is
filled with the cerebrospinal fluid and forms the subarachnoid space or cavity. At some places this space is
especially broad and constitutes the subarachnoid cisterns. Through the subarachnoid space tiny fibers of arachnoid
mater run, connecting it with pia mater. There are cerebral vessels and roots of cranial nerves suspended in the
cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space.
 Major divisions of the brain
ontogenetic point of view clinical point of view

Encephalon - Brain Encephalon - Brain

(prosencephalon - forebrain)
telencephalon cerebrum
cerebral hemispheres
cerebral hemispheres
telencephalon impar
diencephalon telencephalon impar
thalamencephalon
hypothalamus diencephalon (not included by some authors)
mesencephalon - midbrain
tectum of midbrain cerebellum
cerebral peduncles
(rhombencephalon - hindbrain) brainstem
metencephalon
midbrain
pons
cerebellum pons
myelencephalon
medulla oblongata medulla oblongata
 Major divisions of the brain - continued

Diencephalon

thalamus
thalamencephalon
epithalamus

hypothalamus - includes subthalamus

Mesencephalon

tectum of midbrain

tegmentum
cerebral peduncles
cerebral crura
 Specific sensory pathway:

1) - runs from receptors to cerebral cortex,

2) - conveys only one kind of sensation,

3) - uses as few neurons as possible.

 Specific sensory pathways
Somatosensory pathways convey information about somatic sensation

Somatosensory pathway of spinothalamic conveys pain, temperature and imprecise touch

(anterolateral) system information from trunk and limbs

conveys body movements and position,

Somatosensory pathway of posterior
pressure, vibration and precise touch
funiculus/medial lemniscus system information from trunk and limbs

Somatosensory pathways of trigeminal

convey all somatic information from head
system

Olfactory pathway conveys olfactory information

Visual pathway conveys visual infomation

Auditory pathway conveys auditory information

Gustatory pathway conveys gustatory information

conveys head movements and position

Vestibular pathway information
 Lateral spinothalamic tract
Sensory ganglionic cells are the primary neurons. Their dendrites innervate pain and
temperature receptors and convey impulses running in spinal nerve towards the spinal
ganglion. In spinal ganglion the somata of these cells are found. Then the impulses are
conveyed by axons of sensory ganglionic cells. These small-diameter fibers enter the
spinal cord in posterior root and end synapsing with the cells of posterior horn.
Posterior horn cells are the secondary neurons. Their axons leave the posterior horn
and run through the white commissure toward the contralateral lateral funiculus. Then
they bend up and ascend through the whole length of spinal cord and brainstem to
reach the thalamus. In the spinal cord they run in anterior part of lateral funiculus. In
the brainstem they run through tegmentum (forming the so-called spinal lemniscus).
After arriving at thalamic level they end synapsing with the cells in ventral posterior
lateral nucleus (VPL).
Cells of VPL nucleus of thalamus are the tertiary neurons. Their axons ascend in the
posterior limb of internal capsule to get to the cortex. The bundle of these axons forms
the sensory radiation. The tertiary neurons end synapsing in the somatosensory cortex.
For the trunk and limb regions the cortex is in the posterior part of paracentral lobule
(lower limb) and superior (trunk) and middle (upper limb) parts of postcentral gyrus.
Lateral spinothalamic tract conveys pain and temperature sensations. It comprises three
neurons. Secondary neurons decussate in white commissure of spinal cord.
Decussation is called low, for the tract reaches the other side of the nervous system
almost at the level at which the primary neurons enter the spinal cord.
 somatosensory
Lateral spinothalamic tract
cortex
sensory radiation
of posterior limb
III of internal capsule
neuron on the other side
cells of ventral posterolateral
(VPL) nucleus of thalamus
tegmentum
of brainstem
lateral funiculus
II of spinal cord
white commissure of

to
neuron
spinal cord decussation!
cells of posterior horn
of spinal cord
small-diameter fibers
of posterior root of
I spinal nerve
on the same side
neuron cells of spinal ganglion
branches of
spinal nerve

carries pain and temperature information from receptors

 Anterior spinothalamic tract
Sensory ganglionic cells are the primary neurons. Their dendrites innervate imprecise
touch receptors and convey impulses running in spinal nerve towards the spinal
ganglion. In spinal ganglion the somata of these cells are found. Then the impulses are
conveyed by axons of sensory ganglionic cells. These small-diameter fibers enter the
spinal cord in posterior root and end synapsing with the cells of posterior horn.
Posterior horn cells are the secondary neurons. Their axons leave the posterior horn
and run through the white commissure toward the contralateral anterior funiculus.
Then they bend up and ascend through the whole length of spinal cord and brainstem
to reach the thalamus. In the spinal cord they run in lateral part of anterior funiculus. In
the brainstem they run through tegmentum (adding to the spinal lemniscus). After
arriving at thalamic level they end synapsing with the cells in ventral posterior lateral
nucleus (VPL).
Cells of VPL nucleus of thalamus are the tertiary neurons. Their axons ascend in the
posterior limb of internal capsule to get to the cortex. The bundle of these axons forms
the sensory radiation. The tertiary neurons end synapsing in the somatosensory cortex.
For the trunk and limb regions the cortex is in posterior part of the paracentral lobule
(lower limb) and superior (trunk) and middle (upper limb) part of postcentral gyrus.
Anterior spinothalamic tract conveys imprecise touch sensations. It comprises three
neurons. Secondary neurons decussate in white commissure of spinal cord.
Decussation is called low, for the tract reaches the other side of the nervous system
almost on the level on which the primary neurons enter the spinal cord.
 somatosensory
Anterior spinothalamic tract
cortex
sensory radiation
of posterior limb
III of internal capsule
neuron on the other side
cells of ventral posterolateral
(VPL) nucleus of thalamus
tegmentum
of brainstem
anterior funiculus
II of spinal cord

to
neuron white commissure of
spinal cord decussation!
cells of posterior horn
of spinal cord
small-diameter fibers
of posterior root of
spinal nerve
I on the same side
neuron cells of spinal ganglion
branches of
spinal nerve

carries imprecise touch information from receptors

 Ascending tracts of posterior funiculus
Sensory ganglionic cells are the primary neurons. Their dendrites innervate receptors
of many kinds of discriminative sensations (limb position and movement, pressure,
vibration, precise touch) and convey impulses running in spinal nerve towards the spinal
ganglion. In spinal ganglion the somata of these cells are found. Then the impulses are
conveyed by axons of sensory ganglionic cells. These large-diameter fibers enter the
spinal cord in posterior root and reach posterior funiculus. In posterior funiculus they
bend up and ascend through the spinal cord to reach the medulla. Fibers from lower
part of the body form gracile fasciculus, fibers from upper part - cuneate fasciculus. In
medulla the fibers end synapsing with cells of gracile or cuneate nucleus, respectively.
Cells of gracile and cuneate nuclei are the secondary neurons. Their axons cross the
midline in lemniscal decussation and then ascend in the brainstem tegmentum, forming
the medial lemniscus. They run through the whole length of brainstem to reach the
thalamus. After arriving at thalamic level they end synapsing with the cells in ventral
posterior lateral nucleus (VPL).
Cells of VPL nucleus of thalamus are the tertiary neurons. Their axons ascend in the
posterior limb of internal capsule (adding to the sensory radiation) to get to the cortex.
The tertiary neurons end synapsing in the somatosensory cortex. For the trunk and limb
regions the cortex is in posterior part of the paracentral lobule (lower limb) and
superior (trunk) and middle (upper limb) part of postcentral gyrus.
Ascending tracts of posterior funiculus convey discriminative kinds of sensations.
They comprise three neurons. Secondary neurons decussate in lemniscal decussation.
Decussation is called high, for the tracts reach the other side of the nervous system on
the level of medulla, which is high above the level of primary neurons entrance.
 somatosensory
Ascending tracts of posterior funiculus
cortex
sensory radiation
of posterior limb
III of internal capsule
neuron on the other side
cells of ventral posterolateral
(VPL) nucleus of thalamus
medial lemniscus
in tegmentum of
brainstem
II
neuron lemniscal decussation decussation!

to
cells of gracile and cuneate nuclei
fascicles of
posterior funiculus
of spinal cord
I large-diameter fibers on the same side
neuron of posterior root of
spinal nerve
cells of spinal ganglion
branches of spinal nerve
carry discriminative information from receptors
 somatosensory
Trigeminothalamic tracts
cortex

sensory radiation
of posterior limb on the other side
III of internal capsule
neuron
cells of ventral posteromedial
(VPM) nucleus of thalamus

tegmentum decussation!
II of brainstem
neuron

to
cells of sensory nuclei
of trigeminal nerve

roots of
cranial nerves
I cells of sensory ganglions on the same side
neuron of cranial nerves
branches of
cranial nerves

carry somatosensory information from receptors

 gustatory
Gustatory pathway
cortex

along with sensory

radiation of posterior on the other side
III limb of internal capsule
neuron
cells of ventral posteromedial
(VPM) nucleus of thalamus

tegmentum decussation!
II of brainstem
neuron

to
cells of upper part
of solitary nucleus

roots of
cranial nerves
I cells of sensory ganglions on the same side
neuron of cranial nerves
branches of
cranial nerves

carries taste information from receptors

 Visual pathway visual cortex

optic radiation of
posterior limb of
internal capsule
IV
neuron
cells of lateral geniculate nucleus
(LGN) of thalamus

optic tract

to
partial
optic chiasma
III decussation!
neuron optic nerve

ganglion cells of retina

II intraretinal
bipolar cells of retina
neuron pathway

I
carries visual information from rods and cones
neuron
 Partial decussation of visual pathway

visual field defects visual field

L R optical apparatus of the eye

site of lession
1 retina

optic nerve

2 optic chiasma

optic tract

lateral geniculate body

3

1 - blindness of left eye

optic radiation
2 - hemianopia heteronyma (bitemporalis)

3 - hemianopia homonyma (right)

visual cortex
 Auditory pathway auditory cortex

acoustic radiation of
sublentiform part of on both sides
IV internal capsule
neuron
cells of medial geniculate
nucleus (MGN) of thalamus
brachium of
inferior colliculus partial
III decussation!
neuron lateral lemniscus
cells of different

to
nuclei of brainstem on both sides
lateral lemniscus
II partial
trapezoid body decussation!
neuron
cells of cochlear nuclei
root of vestibulocochlear
nerve
I bipolar cells of
neuron spiral ganglion on the same side
branches of cochlear part
of vestibulocochlear nerve

carries auditory information from receptors

 olfactory
Olfactory pathway
cortex

lateral olfactory stria

II olfactory tract
neuron mitral cells of
olfactory bulb
on the same side

to
olfactory nerve
olfactory receptor cells
I
in mucous membrane
neuron
of nasal cavity
olfactory cilia

carries smell information from receptors

has two neurons only

! Olfactory pathway does not pass through thalamus
does not cross the midline
 Cortical areas
Projection areas - get information mainly from one lower center
or send information mainly to one lower center,
are interconnected with projection thalamic nuclei
Somatosensory (somaesthetic) area
Visual area
Auditory area
Sensory areas
Gustatory area
Olfactory area
Vestibular area

Motor area

Association cortical areas - exchange information mainly with other cortical areas
and also with many lower centers
Unimodal association areas - deal with one functional modality only

Multimodal association areas - deal with many functional modalities

Complexes of areas dealing with one functional modality =

projection area + unimodal association area
 Sensory areas

Somatosensory complex
Projection somatosensory area - postcentral gyrus and posterior part of paracentral lobule
Association somatosensory area - superior parietal lobule

Visual complex
Projection visual area - calcarine sulcus and adjacent parts of cuneus and lingual gyrus
Association visual area - around (except anteriorly) the projection visual area extending into the
temporal and parietal lobes

Auditory complex
Projection auditory area - transverse temporal gyri and middle part of superior temporal gyrus
Association auditory area - superior temporal gyrus around the projection auditory area

Olfactory complex
Projection olfactory area - uncus
Association olfactory area - enthorhinal area

Projection gustatory area - opercular part of postcentral gyrus Association unimodal

areas - probably in
Projection vestibular area - probably lower part of postcentral gyrus superior parietal lobule
 Motor areas
Motor complex
Primary projection motor area - precentral gyrus and anterior part of paracentral lobule

Supplementary projection motor area - posterior part of medial frontal gyrus

Association motor area - middle and posterior parts of frontal gyri on the superolateral surface

Frontal eye field - middle part of middle frontal gyrus

Motor (anterior) speech area (Broca’s area) - unpaired, only in dominant hemisphere-
triangular and opercular parts of inferior frontal gyrus

Multimodal association areas

Posterior association area - opercular part of the postcentral gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, posterior
parts of superior and middle temporal gyri

Sensory (posterior) speech area (Wernicke’s area) - unpaired, only in dominant hemisphere -
supramarginal and angular gyri and posterior parts of superior and middle temporal gyri

Anterior association area - anterior parts of frontal gyri and inferior surface of frontal lobe

Medial association area - cingulate and parahippocampal gyri

 Pyramidal motor system

comprises two neurons

Upper motor neuron - cells of primary motor cortex

Lower motor neuron - motor cells of anterior horn of spinal cord or

cells of motor nuclei of cranial nerves

is functionaly connected with voluntary movements

Pyramidal motor tracts

Corticospinal tracts - related to the striated muscles innervated by spinal nerves

Lateral corticospinal
tract
Anterior corticospinal
tract
Corticonuclear tracts - related to the striated muscles innervated by cranial nerves
 carries motor information from motor cortex

cells of paracentral lobule and superior

and middle parts of precentral gyrus
corona radiata of
internal capsule
anterior part of posterior
limb of internal capsule
I
cerebral crus
neuron
longitudinal
fascicles of pons

to
pyramid
pyramidal decussation decussation!
lateral funiculus
of spinal cord
motor cells of anterior horn
of spinal cord
II anterior root of
neuron spinal nerve
branches of
spinal nerves
Lateral corticospinal tract muscles
 carries motor information from motor cortex

cells of paracentral lobule and superior

and middle parts of precentral gyrus
corona radiata of
internal capsule
anterior part of posterior
limb of internal capsule
I cerebral crus
neuron
longitudinal
fascicles of pons

to
pyramid
anterior funiculus
of spinal cord
white commissure decussation!
motor cells of anterior horn
of spinal cord
II anterior root of
neuron spinal nerve
branches of
spinal nerves

Anterior corticospinal tract muscles

 carry motor information from motor cortex

cells of lower part

of precentral gyrus

corona radiata of
internal capsule

I genu of internal capsule

neuron
cerebral crus

to
(longitudinal
fascicles of pons)
partial
tegmentum of brainstem
decussation!

cells of motor nuclei

II of cranial nerves
neuron roots and branches
of cranial nerves

Corticonuclear tracts muscles

 Corticonuclear tract

is „duplicated” for most motor nuclei of cranial nerves, with the exception
of the lower part of motor facial nucleus and hypoglossal nucleus.

Motor nuclei of cranial nerves except the two mentioned above

receive crossed and uncrossed cortical fibers.

Lower part of facial motor nucleus and hypoglossal nucleus

receive only crossed cortical fibers.

 Thalamic nuclei - anatomical classification
Median nuclei
Medial nucleus (medialis dorsalis nucleus)
Intralaminary nuclei
Anterior nucleus
Lateral nucleus
lateral dorsal nucleus
Dorsal nucleus lateral posterior nucleus
pulvinar
lateral geniculate body
Metathalamus
medial geniculate body
ventral anterior nucleus
ventral lateral nucleus
Ventral nucleus ventral posterior medial nucleus
ventral posterior nucleus ventral posterior lateral nucleus
ventral posterior inferior nucleus
posterior nuclei
Reticular nucleus
 Thalamic nuclei - functional classification
Specific nuclei - nucleus has precise topographical projection to
a limited region of the ipsilateral cortex and this cortical region
projects back topographically upon the nucleus

Relay nuclei - nucleus receives a major non-thalamic subcortical input

Sensory nuclei - nucleus is involved in sensory function

Motor nuclei - nucleus is involved in motor function

Limbic nuclei - nucleus is involved in limbic function

Association nuclei - nucleus receives their main subcortical input

from other thalamic nuclei

Nonspecific nuclei - nuclear connections with the cerebral cortex

are not of topographically reciprocal type
 Sensory thalamic nuclei

spinothalamic tracts, ventral posterior lateral somatosensory cortex

medial lemniscus (VPL) nucleus (trunk and limbs areas)
trigeminothalamic tracts, ventral posterior medial somatosensory cortex
gustatory pathway (VPM) nucleus (head area)
lateral geniculate nucleus
optic tract visual cortex
(LGN)
brachium of medial geniculate nucleus
auditory cortex
inferior colliculus (MGN)

Motor thalamic nuclei

globus pallidus, substantia ventral anterior (VA)

premotor cortex
nigra (cerebellum) nucleus

cerebellum (globus pallidus, ventral lateral (VL)

motor cortex
substantia nigra) nucleus
 Limbic thalamic nuclei

part of medialis dorsalis

amygdaloid body orbitofrontal cortex
(MD) nucleus

mamillary body anterior nucleus (Ant) cingulate cortex

Association thalamic nuclei

other thalamic nuclei, parietal, occipital and

pulvinar (Pul)
visual pathway temporal association cortex
collaterals
lateral posterior (LP)
other thalamic nuclei parietal association cortex
nucleus

other thalamic nuclei, part of medialis dorsalis medial temporal and

hypothalamus (MD) nucleus prefrontal association cortices
 Hypothalamic nuclei

pre-optic area

optic region
supra-optic nucleus
paraventricular nucleus

tuberal region
infundibular nucleus

mamillary region
mamillary nuclei
subthalamus subthalamus
 Function of better known hypothalamic nuclei
pre-optic region
belongs to the telencephalon on embryological grounds,
secretes factors controling pituitary production of gonadotropins,
demonstrates sexual dimorphism

optic region
supra-optic nucleus - secretes vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH)
paraventricular nucleus - secretes oxytocine

tuberal region
infundibular nucleus - secretes hormones which control the function
of anterior lobe of pituitary gland

mamillary region
mamillary nuclei - take their part in Papez’s circuit,
which is related to memory functions

subthalamus
subthalamic nucleus - belongs to the motor extrapyramidal system
 Nuclei of cranial nerves
I, olfactory nerve projection of telencephalon, no nuclei

II, optic nerve projection of diencephalon, no nuclei

True cranial M - motor S - sensory P - parasympathetic

nerves nucleus nucleus nucleus

M - oculomotor nucleus
mesencephalic
III, oculomotor
tegmentum at the level
nerve P - accessory oculomotor nucleus
of superior colliculus
(Westphal-Edinger nucleus)

mesencephalic
IV, trochlear
M - trochlear nucleus tegmentum at the level
nerve
of inferior colliculus
 M - trigeminal motor nucleus midlevel of pontine tegmentum

tegmentum in upper pons

S - mesencephalic nucleus
and mesencephalon
V, trigeminal
nerve S - pontine nucleus midlevel of pontine tegmentum
tegmentum in lower pons,
S - spinal nucleus
medulla and cervical spinal
cord
VI, abducent
M - abducent nucleus tegmentum of lower pons
nerve

M - facial motor nucleus tegmentum of lower pons

S - sensory nuclei of
as described above
VII, facial trigeminal nerve
nerve
S - upper (gustatory) part
tegmentum of lower pons
of solitary nucleus

P - superior salivatory nucleus tegmentum of lower pons

 S - vestibular nuclei
VIII, vestibular
part of 4 nuclei: tegmentum of lower
vestibulocochlear superior, inferior, pons and medulla
nerve lateral and medial

VIII, cochlear S - cochlear nuclei

part of tegmentum of
vestibulocochlear 2 nuclei: pontomedullary junction
nerve dorsal and ventral

M - ambiguus nucleus tegmentum of medulla

S - sensory nuclei of
trigeminal nerve as described above
(conscious somatic sensation)

IX, glossopharyngeal S - upper (gustatory) part

of solitary nucleus tegmentum of lower pons
nerve
S - lower part of
solitary nucleus tegmentum of medulla
(nonconscious somatic
sensation)
tegmentum of
P - inferior salivatory nucleus upper medulla
 M - ambiguus nucleus tegmentum of medulla
S - sensory nuclei of
trigeminal nerve as described above
(conscious somatic sensation)

X, vagus S - upper (gustatory) part

of solitary nucleus tegmentum of lower pons
nerve
S - lower part of
solitary nucleus tegmentum of medulla
(nonconscious somatic
sensation)

P - dorsal nucleus of vagus tegmentum of medulla

XI, accessory
M - nucleus ambiguus tegmentum of medulla
nerve, cranial
part
XI, accessory M - spinal accessory upper cervical
nerve, spinal part nucleus spinal cord

XII, hypoglossal
M - hypoglossal nucleus tegmentum of medulla
nerve