Accounting for managers (A

snapshot)
By: Dr. Surabhi Goyal
Meaning of Accountancy
Accounting is the art of recording,
classifying and summarizing in a significant
manner and in terms of money, transactions
and events which are in part, atleast of a
financial character and interpreting thereof.
Scope of accounting
Economics
Statistics
Mathematics
Law
 Accounting principles: GAAP
(Generally accepted
accounting principles) Accounting principles

Accounting concepts Accounting conventions

Money Matching
Separat Dual Going Realiza
e entity concept concern
measurem
tion
Accountin
g period Cost of cost and
Full
Materiality
revenue
Consistency
ent
Conservatism
disclosure
Accounting standards
Need: To provide guidelines relating to the accounting
treatment as well as reporting of important
accounting items with as view to standardize the
diverse accounting policies/ procedures.
Issued by ICAI and converged by IFRS (International
Financial Reporting Standards). At present there are
39 accounting standards in India as notified by
Ministry of corporate affairs.
Mandatory for:
Enterprises whose equity or debt are listed/ in process of
listing/will be listed on recognised stock exchanges.
All other enterprises whose turnover is more than Rs. 50
crores.
Accounting cycle/Book-keeping
cycle
Book-keeping: It is the art of recording business
transactions in a regular and systematic manner
The series of steps of accounting cycle begin when a
transaction occurs and end with its inclusion in the financial
statements. The nine steps of the accounting cycle are:
Collecting and analyzing data from transactions and events.
Putting transactions into the general journal.
Posting entries to the general ledger.
Preparing an unadjusted trial balance.
Adjusting entries appropriately.
Preparing an adjusted trial balance.
Organizing the accounts into the financial statements.
Closing the books.
Also known as "bookkeeping cycle".
Systems of book-keeping
Single entry system: Only cash and
personal account records are maintained
Double entry system
Journal
Book containing chronological record of
transactions.

Date Particulars L. Debit Credit

F. (Rs.) (Rs.)
Types of accounts

Accounts

Personal Real Nominal

Representa
Natural Artificial tive Tangible Intangible Expenses and losses Incomes and gains

Debit what Debit all

Debit the receiver and
comes in, credit expenses and
credit the giver
what goes out losses and credit
all incomes and
gains
 Ledger
A ledger is the principal book or
computer file for recording and totaling
economic transactions measured in
terms of a monetary unit of account by
account type, with debits and credits in
separate columns and a beginning
monetary balance and ending monetary
balance for each account.
The process of transferring entry from
Date Particula L. Dr. Date Particular L. Cr.
journal
rs to the ledger
F. Amount is called
s posting.
F. Amount
(Rs.) (Rs.)
Subsidiary books
Subsidiary book is the sub division of Journal. These are known as books of
prime entry or books of original entry as all the transactions are recorded in
their original form. In these books the details of the transactions are recorded
as they take place from day to day in a classified manner.

The important subsidiary books used are as following:-

-Cash Book : Used to record all the cash receipts and payments.
-Purchase Book : Used to record all the credit purchases.
-Sales Book : Used to record all the credit sales
-Purchase Return Book : Used to record all goods returned by business to the
supplier
-Sales Return Book : Used to record all good returned by the customer to the
business.
-Bills Receivable Book : Used to record all accepted bills received by
business.
-Bills Payable Book : Used to record all bill accepted by us to our creditors.
-Journal Proper : Used to record those transactions for which there is no
separate book.
 Trial balance
It is a bookkeeping worksheet in which the
balances of all ledgers are compiled into debit
and credit columns. A company prepares a trial
balance periodically, usually at the end of every
reporting period. The general purpose of
producing a trial balance is to ensure the entries
in a company's bookkeeping system are
mathematically correct.
Particulars Debit (Rs.) Credit (Rs.)
Preparation of Trial Balance
For each ledger account — Cash, Accounts Payable, etc. —
total your credits and debits.
If the credit total is larger, subtract the debit total from the
credit total to get your ledger account total which goes in
the credit column of the trial balance
If the debit total is larger, subtract the credit total from the
debit total to get your ledger account total which goes in
the debit column of the trial balance
Put the ledger account total in the credit or debit column of
your trial balance (as identified above).
When you have debit or credit totals for each ledger
account, add all of your credit totals to get a credit grand
total.
Add all of your debit totals to get a debit grand total. This is
your trial balance.
Rectification of errors
Accounting errors: These are the errors committed by persons
responsible for recording and maintaining accounts of a business firm
in the course of accounting process. These errors may be in the form
of omitting the transactions to record, recording in wrong books, or
wrong account or wrong totaling and so on.
Accounting errors can take the following forms:
Omission of recording a business transaction in the Journal or Special
purpose Books
Not posting the recorded transactions in various books of accounts to
the respective accounts in ledger
Mistakes in totalling or in carrying forward the totals to the next page
Mistake in recording amount wrongly, writing it in a wrong account or
on the wrong side of the account.
Again there may be two types of accounting errors (i) That cause the
disagreement of trial balance, (ii) That do not affect the agreement
of Trial Balance.
How to locate errors
Steps to be taken to locate the accounting errors can be stated as follows:
(A) When the Trial Balance does not agree
Check the columnar totals of Trial Balance
Check that the balances of all accounts (including cash and bank balances) in the ledger have been written and
are written in the correct column of trial balance i.e. debit balance in the debit column and credit balance in the
credit column.
Find the exact figure of difference with trial balance and see that:
No account of a similar balance has been omitted to be shown in the Trial Balance or
A balance amount which is half of the amount of difference amount but is written on the wrong side of the trial Balance.
Recheck the totals of Special Purpose Books.
Check the balancing of the various accounts in the ledger.
If difference is still not traced, check each and every posting from the Journal and various Special Purpose
Books, one by one in the ledger.

(B) When the Trial Balance agrees.

Following are the errors which don’t affect the trial balance :
Omission to record a transaction in a journal or in a Special Purpose Book. For example, goods purchased on
credit but are not recorded in the Purchases Book at all.
Recording a wrong amount of an item in journal or in a Special Purpose Book. For example, sale of Rs. 2550 on
credit entered in the Sales Book as Rs.5250.
Posting the correct amount on the correct side but in wrong account. For example, cash received from
Jagannathan was credited to Vishvanathan.
An item of Capital Expenditure recorded as an item of Revenue Expenditure and vice-a-versa. For example,
Repairs to Building was debited to Building A/c.
 Classification of accounting
errors
Various accounting errors can be classified as follows :
A. On the basis of their nature
(a) Errors of omission
(b) Errors of commission
(c) Errors of principle
B. On the basis of their impact on ledger accounts
(a) One sided errors
(b) Two sided errors.
A. On the basis of their nature
(a) Errors of omission
As a rule, a transaction is first recorded in books of accounts. However, accountant may not record it at all or record it
partially. It is called an error of omission. For example, goods purchased on credit are not recorded in Purchases Book or
discount allowed to a customer was not posted to Discount A/c in the ledger.
(b) Errors of commission
When the transaction has been recorded but an error is committed in the process of recording, it is called an error of
commission. Error of commission can be of the following types:
(i) Errors committed while recording a transaction in the Special Purpose books. It may be :
Recording in the wrong book for example purchase of goods from Rakesh on credit is recorded in the Sales Book and not
in the Purchases Book.
Recording in the book correctly but wrong amount is written. For example, goods sold to Shalini of Rs.4200 was recorded
in the Sales Book as Rs.2400
 Classification (contd..)
(ii) Wrong totalling : There may be a mistake in totalling Special Purpose Book or accounts. The totalled amounts may be
less than the actual amount or more than the actual amount. First is a case of undercasting and the other of overcasting.
For example, the total of Purchases Book is written as Rs.44800 while actual total is Rs. 44300, the total of Sales Day
Book is written as Rs.52500 while it is Rs.52900.
It is a case of an error affecting one account hence it affects trial balance.

(iii) Wrong balancing : While closing the books of accounts at the end of the accounting period, the ledger accounts are
balanced. Balance is calculated of the totals of the two sides of the account. It may be wrongly calculated. For example,
the total of the debit column of Mohan’s A/c is Rs.8600 and that of credit column is Rs.6800. The balance calculated is
as Rs.1600 while the actual balance is Rs.1800.
It has affected one account only, therefore, the Trial Balance gets affected.

(iv) Wrong carry forward of balances or totals : Totals or balances are carried forward to the next page. These may be
carried forward incorrectly. For example, the total of one page of the Purchases Book. of Rs.35,600 is carried to next
page as Rs.36500.
Again the error affects one account only. Therefore, Trial Balance gets affected.
(v) Wrong Posting : Transactions from the journal or special purpose books are posted to the respective accounts in the
ledger. Error may be committed while carrying out posting. It may take various forms such as, posting to wrong
account, to the wrong side of the account or posted twice to the same account. For example goods purchased of
Rs.5400 from Rajesh Mohanti was posted to the debit of Rajesh Mohanti or posted twice to his account or posted to the
credit of Rakesh Mohanti.
In the above examples, only one account is affected because of the error therefore, Trial Balance is also affected.
 Classification (contd..)
Compensating Errors
Two or more errors when committed in such a way that there is increase or decrease in the debit side due to an
error, also there is corresponding decrease or increase in the credit side due to another error by the same
amount. Thus, the effect on the account is cancelled out. Such errors are called compensating errors. For
example, Sohan’s A/c is debited by Rs 2500 while it was to be debited by Rs 3500 and Mohan’s A/c is
debited by Rs 3500 while the same was to be debited by Rs 2500. Thus excess debit of Mohan’s A/c by
Rs.1000 is compensated by short credit of Sohan’s A/c by Rs.1000.
As the debit amount and the credit amount are equalised, such errors do not affect the agreement of Trial
Balance, but the fact remains that there is still an error.
(c) Error of Principle
Items of income and expenditure are divided into capital and revenue categories. This is the basic principle of
accounting that the capital income and capital expenditure should be recorded as capital item and revenue
income and revenue expenditure should be recorded as revenue item. If transactions are recorded in violation
of this principle, it is called error of principle i.e. the capital item has been recorded as revenue item and
revenue item is recorded as capital item. For example, Rs. 5000 spent on the repairs of building is debited to
Building A/c while it should have been debited to Repair to Building A/c. It is a case of error of principle
because expenditure on repairs of building is a revenue expenditure, while it has been debited to Building
A/c taking it as an item of capital expenditure.
As both the sides i.e. credit as well as debit remain affected, the trial Balance also is not affected by such
errors.
Rectification of errors through suspense
account
If the totals do not agree the difference amount is written in
a new account. This account is called Suspense Account.
If the total of the debit side of the Trial Balance is more
than the total of its credit side, the difference amount will
be written in Suspense A/c on its credit side i.e. Suspense
A/c is credited and vice-a-versa.
Suspense A/c is the result of one sided errors.
For example, Gopal’s Account was debited short by Rs.100.
The error will be rectified through Suspense A/c by
debiting Gopal A/c and crediting Suspense A/c by Rs.100.
 Classification of capital and revenue
Capital expenditure vs. Revenue
expenditure
Basis Capital expenditure
Incurranc Incurred either for acquiring
e new fixed asset or
improving the existing
ones.
Earning Increases the earning
capacity capacity of business.
Time Its benefits are available
period over a period of time
Revenue expenditure
Incurred either for maintaining
the existing fixed assets or
meeting the routine expenses of
business.
It does not do so.
Restricted only to the
accounting period in which they
are incurred
 Classification of capital and
revenue
Capital income vs. revenue income

Basis Capital income Revenue income

Meaning Profit realized over and Revenue receipts are the one
above the cost of the which affect the profitability
fixed asset is considered of the company like day to
as capital income or day incomes.
gain.
Other Synonymous to the term Synonymous to the term
names „CAPITAL GAIN‟. „REVENUE PROFIT‟.
Deferred revenue
expenditure
Class of revenue expenditure incurred during
an accounting period, but applicable either
wholly or in part to future period.
Examples:
Expenditure wholly paid in advance, where no
service have yet been rendered.eg Telephone
rent.
Partly paid in advance, portion of benefit availed
,rest shown as asset in balance sheet. Eg
proportion of rent paid in advance.
Losses of exceptional nature eg heavy loss of
non insured assets through fire.
Exercise
State the nature of the following transactions:
1. Carriage paid on goods purchased .
2. Legal expenses incurred for abuse of trademark.
3. Money raised by issue of equity shares.
4. Expenditure incurred on issue of equity shares.
5. Cost of formation of a new company.
6. Cost of experimenting a new product which did not
result in success.
7. Cost of Rs 10,000 incurred in increasing the sitting
accommodation and Rs 5,000 in repainting of cinema
house.
8. Heavy legal expenditure incurred by a newspaper
company to defend a legal suit.
Final accounts
Final accounts give a concise idea about
the profitability and financial position of a business to its
management, owners, and other interested parties.
All business transactions are first recorded in a journal.
They are then transferred to a ledger and balanced. These
final tallies are prepared for a specific period. The
preparation of a final accounting is the last stage of
the accounting cycle.
Ingredients of final accounts
Manufacturing account (Cost of production)
Trading account (Result of trading activities)
Profit & loss account (To know the net profit or loss over a
given period)
Balance sheet (Statement of asset, liabilities or capital at the
end of given period)
Adjustments for Final Accounts
 Some Important and Common Adjustments
are listed below:
 Closing Stock:-

Adjustment Entry:
Closing Stock A/c--------Dr
To Trading A/c

 The Closing Stock is treated in the Final Accounts as follows:-

 On the Credit Side of “Trading A/c”, shown as separate item.
 On the Assets Side of the Balance Sheet, shown as a separate item under
“Current Assets”.

Dr. Cr. Liabilities Amount Assets Amount in

in Rs. Rs.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount in
in Rs. Rs. Current Assets:
Closing Stock xxxxxxxxxx
By Closing Stock xxxxxxxxxx

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 Adjusted Purchases and Closing Stock

 Sometimes the Closing Stock may be given in the Trial Balance itself.
This would mean that both the Opening and the Closing Stocks have
been adjusted in the Purchases.
 In such a situation, the Opening Stock will not appear in Trial Balance.
 The Trial Balance will show only the figures of Adjusted Purchases and
Closing Stock.
 The Adjusted Purchases are in fact the Cost of Goods Sold.
 They have been worked out by adding the Opening Stock + Net
Purchases + Direct Expenses – Closing Stock.
 The Adjusted Purchases are shown on the debit side of “Trading
Account”.
 In such a situation there is no need to show “Closing Stock in the
Trading Account” as it already stands adjusted in Purchases.
 It will be shown only on the “Assets side of Balance Sheet”.

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  Outstanding Salaries:-

Adjustment Entry:
Concerned Expense A/c--------Dr
To Outstanding Expenses A/c

 The Outstanding Expenses is treated in Final Accounts as follows:-

 Added to the concerned expenses in the “Trading and Profit and Loss
A/c”.
 Shown on the Liabilities side of the Balance Sheet as a separate item
under “Current Liabilities”.

Dr. Cr. Liabilities Amount in Assets Amount in

Rs. Rs.
Particulars Amount in Particulars Amount in
Rs. Rs. Current
Liabilities:
To Expenses Xxxxxx Outstanding Exp. Xxxxxx
Add: Xxxxxx
Outstanding
Expenses

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 Outstanding Expenses:-

 Outstanding Expenses are those expenses which have been

incurred during Current accounting year but have not been
paid till the end of the year. They are also called “Accrued
Expenses”.
 The Common examples of such expenses are the Salaries,
Wages and Rent for the last month of the Accounting year paid
in the first month of the Next year.
 Since they remained unpaid as at the end of Accounting year,
no entry might have been passed in the books of account.
 So, they must be taken into account while preparing the
Trading and Profit and Loss A/c, otherwise it will not reveal
the correct amount of Profit or Loss.

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  Prepaid Expenses:-
Adjustment Entry:
Prepaid Expenses A/c--------Dr
To Concerned Expense A/c

 The Prepaid Expenses will be treated in Final Accounts as follows:-

 Subtracted from the Concerned Expense in the “Trading and Profit and Loss A/c”.
 Shown on the Assets side of the Balance Sheet as a separate item under “Current
Assets”.

Dr. Cr. Liabilities Amount in Assets Amount in

Rs. Rs.
Particulars Amount in Particulars Amount in Current Assets:
Rs. Rs.
Prepaid Xxxxxx
Expenses
To Expense A/c Xxxxxx
Less: Prepaid Exp. Xxxxxx

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 Prepaid Expenses:-

 Sometimes, the benefit of some Expenses will be

available not only in the Current Accounting year but
also in the Next year.
 That Portion of expense the benefit of which yet to be
received is called “Prepaid Expense” (or) “Unexpired
Expense”.
 Examples of such expenses are Unexpired Insurance,
Interest paid in Advance, etc.
 In such situations it is necessary to find out the
Unexpired Portion and adjust it in the concerned
expense.

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  Accrued Income:-

Adjustment Entry:
Accrued Income A/c---------Dr
To Concerned Income A/c

 The Accrued Income is treated in final accounts as follows:-

 Added to the concerned income in the Profit and Loss Account and
 Shown on the Asset Side of the Balance Sheet as a separate item under
“Current Assets”.

Dr. Cr. Liabilities Amount in Assets Amount in

Rs. Rs.
Particulars Amount in Particulars Amount in
Rs. Rs.
Current Assets:
By Income Xxxxxx Accrued Income Xxxxxx
Add: Accrued Xxxxxx
Income

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 Accrued Income:-

 Accrued Incomes are those incomes which have been

earned during the Current Accounting year but have not
been received till the end of the year.
 Accrued Income is also called as “Outstanding Incomes”
(or) “Incomes earned but not yet received”.
 Examples of such incomes are Commission Receivable,
Income on Investments due but not yet received, etc.

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  Income Received in Advance:-

Adjustment Entry:
Concerned Income A/c---------Dr
To Income received in advance A/c

 The Unearned Income is treated in the Final Accounts as follows:-

 Deducted from the Concerned Income in the Profit and Loss Account, and
 Shown on the Liabilities side of the Balance Sheet as a separate item under
Current Liabilities.

Dr. Cr. Liabilities Amount Assets Amount in

in Rs. Rs.

Particulars Amount in Particulars Amount in

Rs. Rs. Current Liabilities:
Income received in Xxxxxx
By Income Xxxxxx advance
A/c Xxxxxx
Less:
Income
received in
Advance

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 Income Received in Advance:-

 Any Income which belongs to the next accounting year

but has been received during the current accounting
year is called “Income Received in Advance” (or)
“Unearned Income”.
 It is the income in respect of which the service is yet to
be provided.
 Examples of such incomes are Rent received in advance,
Interest received in advance, etc.
 In such a situation, the unearned portion of the income
will have to be adjusted while preparing the Final
Accounts.

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 Illustration 1:-
Show how you will record the following items in the Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheet.

The Trial Balance showed the following balances as on December 31, 1987:

Particulars Amount in Rs.

Salaries 10000=00
Wages 20000=00
Rent Received 6600=00
Commission Received 2000=00
Interest on 6000=00
Investments

Additional Information:
1. Salaries amounting to Rs.2,000 are Outstanding.
2. Wages include Rs.1,500 paid in Advance.
3. Interest on Investment include Rs.1,200 for the months of January, February and March,
1988
4. Rent for the month of December amounting to Rs.600 is not yet received.
Gross Profit for the year is Rs.40,000 and other expenses amounted to Rs.10,000.

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 Profit and Loss Account for the year ended December 31, 1987

Dr. Cr.

Particulars Amount in Amount in Rs. Particulars Amount in Amount in Rs.

Rs. Rs.

To Salaries 10,000 By Gross Profit 40,000

Add: Outstanding 2,000 b/d
------------- 12,000
To Wages 20,000 By Rent Received 6,600
Less: Prepaid 1,500 Add: Outstanding 600
------------- 18,500 ------------ 7,200
By Commission
To Other 10,000 Received 2,000
Expenses
By Interest on 6,000
To Net Profit Investments
13,500
(Transferred to Less: Received in
1,200
Capital A/c) Advance
------------ 4,800

___________ ___________
54,000 54,000
___________ ___________

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 Balance Sheet as on December 31, 1987

Liabilities Amount in Rs. Assets Amount in Rs.

Current Liabilities: Current Assets:
Salaries Outstanding 2,000 Wages Prepaid 1,500
Interest Received in 1,200 Rent Outstanding 600
Advance

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