GYPSUM PRODUCTS AND THEIR

SIGNIFICANCE IN PROSTHETICS
Submitted by: Tavleen Kaur
PG 1st year
Department of
Prosthodontics and
Crown and
bridge
CONTENTS
 History and Introduction
 Uses of gypsum
 Production of Gypsum
 Setting Reaction
 Classification
 Types of gypsum
 Properties of gypsum
 Proportioning and mixing
 Setting reaction
 Properties of gypsum
 Manipulation
 Gypsum bonded investment
 Care of gypsum product
 Infection control
 Conclusion
 References
 HISTORY
 The word “gypsum” is derived from Greek word gypsos which
means “chalk”.
 Five thousand years ago the Egyptians had learned to make

plaster from gypsum.

 First commercial gypsum operation began in 1841 by Daniel

Ball and Warren Granger.

 Production of gypsum

mainly takes place in

USA and Iran.
In dentistry introduced
by Pfaff in 1756
 INTRODUCTION
 Gypsum products are supplied as fine hemihydrates powders that
are produced by heating ground gypsum. After mixing with water
the mixture reverts back to gypsum. This unique property of
gypsum products has led to numerous application through history.
 The primary application of gypsum products in dentistry include

The production of study models for oral and maxillofacial structured

and their use as auxiliary material for dental laboratory.
They are also used to form models and casts on which wax dental
prosthesis and restorations are constructed.
When mixed with refractory fillers, such as a different crystalline
form of silica it becomes more heat resistant which makes it useful
to form molds for casting of molten metal in anatomic form in
dental restorations.This form of material is known as
gypsum based investment.
 Uses
 Used for construction purpose.
 Orthopedic Use: Used in preparation of casts.
 In Dentistry:
1. Impression plaster for OMF impression.
2. Various types of plasters are used to make moulds, casts &
die over which dental prosthesis & restorations are made.
3. To mount the cast on the articulator.
4. For bite registration.
5. Dental investments: when plaster is mixed with silica, it is
known as dental investment, mainly used to form moulds
into which molten metals are cast.
Production of Gypsum products
Dry Calcination: Commercially,the gypsum is ground and subjected to
temperature of 110 degree C to 130 degree C in open containers to drive off water
of crystallization.The principal constituents of gypsum based products is calcium
sulfate hemihydrates .The resulting particles is a fibrous aggregate of fine crystals
with capillary pores known as Plaster of Paris or Dental plaster(beta hemihydrates).

CaSO4. 2H2O CaSO4 .1/2H2O

Heat to 383K-413K (β-hemihydrate)
WetCalcination: When gypsum is heated in a kettle or rotary kiln that
maintains a wet environment; a crystalline hemihydrates called dental stone is
produced in the form of rods and prisms(alpha hemihydrates)
CaSO .2H 0
4 2 (CaSO )1/2H O
4 2 CaSO4 CaSO4
GYPSUM 110-120o c DENTAL Plaster/ STONE 130-200o C HEXAGONAL ANHYDRATE 200-1000o C ORTHOGONAL

ANHYDRATE
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALPHA AND BETA HEMIHYDRATES
Alpha Hemihydrate Beta Hemihydrate

Dense and prismatic Spongy and irregular

Stronger and harder dehydrate produced on mixing with water Less strong

Less porous More Porous

Require less water Require more water to wet the powder particles

•If the calcinations process occurs under pressure in a 30% calcium chloride solution
or in the presence of more than 1% of sodium succinate,the resulting hemihydrates
crystals will be shorter and thicker than those produced in a closed container.
Residual calcium chloride or sodium succinate is removed by washing the powder
with hot water. This type of gypsum producing product is called modified alpha
hemihydrates or die stone.
Setting of gypsum products
1. The colloidal theory
2. The hydration theory
3. The dissolution precipitation theory:
It is the most accepted theory,based on dissolution of the hemihydrates particles in water
followed by instant recrystallization to the dihydrate.This is possible because the solubility of
hemihydrates in water is four times greater than that
of dihydrate near room temperature.
1.When hemihydrates is mixed with water ,
a suspension is formed that is fluid and workable

2.The hemihydrates dissolves until it forms the

saturated solution of Ca ion and sulfate ions

3.This saturated hemihydrate solution

is supersaturated with respect
to the solubility of the dihydrate;
precipitation of dihydrate occurs

4.As the dehydrate precipitates , the hemihydrates

continues to dissolve .
The process proceeds as either new crystals form
or further growth occurs on the crystal already
present until no further dehydrate can precipitate
out of solution.
 TESTS FOR WORKING ,SETTING, AND FINAL SETTING TIME

 Mixing time:The time from the addition of powder to water until

mixing is completed.Mechanical mixing takes 20-30 seconds.Hand
spatulation requires a minute.

 Working time: The time from the start of mixing to the point where
the consistency is no longer acceptable for the product’s intended
purpose.3minutes is sufficient generally.

 Initial setting time:When the mix resist penetration by a Gillmore

needle which has a tip of 2.12mm in diameter and weighs
113.4g,the time elapsed is the initial setting time.

 Final setting time: The elapsed time at which the heavier Gillmore
needle weighing 453.6g and tip 1.06 in diameter leaves only a
bearly perceptible mark on the surface.
Measuring setting time
 1.Loss of gloss method
 2.Gillmore Test

Initial Gillmore’s Test Final Gillmore TEST

Smaller needle is used to for initial set Heavier needle is used for final
testing set

The time at which no longer leaves an The by which this needle leaves
impression is called INITIAL SET only a
It is 12 min barely predictable mark o the
surface is
referred to as FINAL SET
It is 45-60min
3.Vicat needle test
After initial setting the further
reaction is
determined by an instrument called
Vicat penetrometer
The needle weighs 300g and has a
diameter of 1mm.
 The needle with a weighted
plunger rod is supported and held
just in contact with the mix.
 The time elapsed until the needle
no longer reach the bottom of the
mix is known as setting time. VICAT NEEDLE
 Classification
Type 1: Dental plaster, Type 2: Dental plaster,
impression model

Type 3: Dental stone,

model

Type 5: Dental stone,

die, high strength, high
expansion
USES OF GYPSUM PRODUCTS IN
PROSTHODONTICS
 Type I plaster / Impression plaster :
 It is used making primary impression of edentulous oral
cavity in complete denture fabrication. (It is now replaced by
elastomers and hydrocolloids as they are less rigid materials)
Type II dental plaster (Model plaster)-

 It is used in producing study cast or primary cast.

 It is used to fill flasks during complete denture

constructions

 It is marketed in the natural white colour .

 Type III Dental Stone

 It is an α – form of calcium sulfate hemihydrate

which is used in making master cast.
 It is marketed as coloured powder or cement .
 It is preferred for casts used to process denture as the stone has adequate
strength and hardness and denture can be easily removed after
processing.
 Requisites:
• It has a prismatic shape i.e. in the form of rods and prisms. When mixed
with water dental stone sets as a harder mass than does the dental plaster
due to its more dense and prismatic structure.
• Gypsum calcined under high pressure produced a better quality crystals
of calcium sulfate hemihydrates.
Dental Stone (High strength) (Type IV)

 It is an α- hemihydrate of densite type with Cuboidal shaped crystal.

 Principal requisites:
Hardness
Abrasion resistance
strength
minimal setting expansion

 Hard surface is necessary for a die stone since the cavity preparation is filled with
the wax that is carved flush with the margins of the die Gypsum hardening
solution , silver plating and other methods are used to increase the abrasion
resistance .
 Hardening method: Coating with cyanoacrylate and Clear Coat improves surface
hardness.
 It is known that calcined gypsum, after being moistened with a solution of
alum and again burnt, acquires much greater hardness and solidity.
 Another process is to make a solution of one pound of borax in nine pounds
of water, which is formed over the calcined fragments of gypsum. They are
then kept at a strong red heat for six hours, ground to a powder and worked
Dental Stone (High strength and High expansion) Type V

 The type V dental stone exhibit higher compressive strength

than does type IV . This strength is achieved by making it
possible to a lower water powder ratio upto 0.18 to 0.22.

 Setting expansion is increased from a minimum of 0.10 to

0.30 since a few base metal alloys have a greater tendency of
shrinkage which is limited by expansion.

 Its usage is contraindicated in production of die for inlays

and onlays.
Properties of gypsum products
To become certified as a dental gypsum product, the product
needs to fulfill certain requirements. These requirements include
powder quality, fluidity at pouring time (Type 1 materials only),
setting time, linear setting expansion, fracture ability (Type 1
materials only), compressive strength and ability to reproduce
details

9.0
1. SETTING TIME
The time elapsed from the beginning of the mixing until the
material hardens is known as setting time.

Factors affecting setting time

 Manufacturing procedure- fine gypsum residue are

added,grinding hemihydrate particles

 Water powder ratio -The more water in the mix of model plaster,

dental stone, or high-strength dental stone, the longer the

setting time.
 Mixing and spatulation- . Increased spatulation shortens the

setting time within practical limits.

 Temperature -increasing the temperature from room

temperature of 20" C to body temperature of 37" C increases the

rate of the reaction slightly and shortens the setting time.
However, as the temperature is raised over 37" C, the rate of the
reaction decreases, and the setting time is
lengthened.Difference in solubility between hemihydrate and
gypsum becomes smaller with increasing temperature,this
condition lowers the driving force for forming the dihydrate.
 Humidity- Humidity increase upto 70% causes acceleration of
setting reaction. As it absorbs moisture from air to start setting
reaction.The first hydration produces a few crystals of gypsum on
surface which act as nuclei of crystallization.
 On continued hydration, retardation of the setting reaction occurs

as the hemihydrate is completely covered with dihydrate

crystals,water penetration becomes difficult, hence prolonging
setting time
 Modifiers

◦ Accelerators-
◦ 2% NaCl-low concentration – increases solubility of gypsum.Ast
higer concentration,salt prercipitates and poisons the nuclei of
crystallization.
 2% Potassium sulfate K2SO4 is known as an effective accelerator.
Syngenite is the result of K2SO4 reaction with gypsum which
becomes the core of gypsum crystal growth and replace sulfate
dihydrate.Having a higher solute, so gypsum crystal growth will
form crystals quickly.
 Small amount of set calcium sulfate dihydrate(terra alba)
◦ Retarders –
~Sodium citrate is a dependable retarder. The
retarding action of citric acid on the gypsum
plaster is attributed to the formation of hydrogen
citrate ions or the tri-and tetra-valent citrate ions.
~ 2% aqueous solution of borax as
physically adsorbed on the surface of the
crystal,forming calcium borate thus reducing the
rates of dissolution of the hemihydrate and the
formation of gypsum nuclei.
~ferric sulphate,chromium
sulphate,aluminium sulphate,tartaric acid,
phosphates etc, they precipitate as calcium salts
and inhibit growth of dihydrate crystals.
 Effect of Colloidal Systems and pH - Colloidal systems
such as agar and alginate retard the setting of gypsum
products. If these materials are in contact with
CaS04 . 1/2H,O during setting, a soft, easily
abraded surface is obtained.

Liquids with low pH, such as saliva, retard the setting

reaction. Liquids with high Ph accelerate setting.
Presence of more than 2% NaCl ,colloids like blood act
as retarder to setting reaction by wetting the nuclei and
prevent their growth
2.Setting expansion

Normal setting expansion refers to the setting expansion when a

gypsum product is allowed to expand in air (when placed on table or
dry environment). Hygroscopic setting expansion refers to the
expansion of a gypsum products when it is all in water.

not
 Under ordinary conditions, gypsum products have setting expansion, as
 Dental plaster -0.2% to 0.3%
 Low to moderate-strength dental stone - 0.15% to 0.25%,
 High-strength dental stone -0.08% to 0.10%.
 High-strength/high-expansion dental stone-0.10% to 0.20%.

 Percentage expansion of the gypsum must be measured after two

hours.

Control of setting expansion

 Setting expansion can be controlled by different manipulative

conditions and addition of chemicals.

 Increased spatulation leads to increased Setting expansion.

 Increase in water : powder – decreases Setting expansion.

 K SO 4% solution reduces the Setting expansion from 0.5% to

2 4
0.06%.Since it reacts with CaSO4 to form denser crystals.
 NaCl in small amounts and ground gypsum increases the Setting

Expansion.
3. STRENGTH
Strength of gypsum products is usually measured in terms of
compressive strength. When set, gypsum products show relatively
high compressive strength values.
. Compressive strength is measured in N/mm2 after one hour.
Impression can be seperated from cast after 30min when gypsum has
attained about 80% of strength.
Factors affecting strength:
1. Water Content
Wet strength : When excess free water, more than that
necessary for hydration of hemihydrate, is present in the material, it
is called wet strength or green strength. It is measured in 1hr
Dry strength: When excess free water is lost due to evaporation
it is called dry strength of green strength. This is 2 -3 times the wet
strength.It is measured after 24hr.

2. W/P ratio- Greater the W/P ratio, less is the dry strength.
3. Spatulation-Increase in mixing time increases strength to a
limit upto 1 minute of hand spatulation. Over mixing will
break down the crystalline structure.
4. Addition of accelerators and retarders- decreases strength
due to inhibits intercrystalline cohesion.
5. Use of K2SO4 improves strength due to formation of
syngenite.
6. Data show that at pH 7.0, maximum attainment of strength
generally was achieved which clearly manifests that neutral
environment is necessary for the proper development of
strength in the plasters
4. HARDNESS AND ABRASION RESISTANCE

The surface hardness of gypsum materials is related to their compressive

strength. Increase in the compressive strength of the hardened mass leads to
increase in the surface hardness. Resistance to abrasion also increases with
increase in compressive strength.
Type III gypsum has a hardness of 32 RHN whereas Type IV has 82RHN.

5.VISCOSITY
The viscosity of high-strength gypsum differs considerably in the range of
20,000 to 100,000 centipoises. As the viscosity increases, so does also the
void content.

6.TENSILE STRENGTH
The tensile strength of gypsum material is important in which bending forces
tend to occur as in the removal of cast from flexible impression materials.
Some significant observations have resulted from some studies. The 1-hour
wet tensile strength of model plaster, 2.3 MPa, is about one half the dry
tensile strength, 4.1 MPa, after 40 hours at 45degree C.
The tensile strength of model plaster in either the wet or dry condition is
about one half that of high-strength dental stone in the comparable condition.
 
7.REPRODUCTION OF DETAIL: ANSI/ADA Specification No. 25
requires that Types 1 and 2 reproduce a groove 75 pm in
width, whereas Types 3, 4, and 5 reproduce a groove 50 pm
in width.

8. COMPATIBILITY WITH IMPRESSION MATERIALS:

 Agar hydrocolloid impression materials are more compatible

with gypsum model materials than alginates.

 The water content of the hydrocolloid impressions inhibits

the setting of the gypsum at the surface.
 With alginate:excess water or exudate on impression will
cause a chalky surface.
 When mixes of gypsum products are poured into
hydrophobic addition silicone, high contact angles are
formed, making the preparation of bubble-free models
difficult.Debubblizer includes 2% sodium dioctyl
sulfosuccinate and soap solution.
 Polyether materials flow onto hydrated intraoral
surfaces due to affinity to water and are therefore
cast with gypsum more easily.
 A study by Ragain and Grosko(2000) compared

surface detail parameters, interfacial contact

angles, and die hardness for some combinations of
elastomeric impression and die materials. Although
statistically significant differences in each property
were found, no specific combination of impression
and die materials was identified as superior to
another for all surface properties studied
 MANIPULATION
 Preproportioning: The water and powder should be measured by using graduated
cylinder for the water volume and a weighing balance for weight of the powder
 MIXING
The plaster or the stone is mixed in a flexible rubber or plastic bowl with a stiff
bladed spatula.
The mixing equipment should be meticulously clean. Any set plaster will act as
additional nuclei of crystallization and cause acceleration of setting time.
No air must be trapped in the mixed mass as the presence of the air bubbles may
cause loss of surface detail and weaken the cast.
Measure the quantity of water in the rubber bowl and sift a weighed quantity of
powder into it in 20 seconds. Tap the bowl on the table and spatulate with rapid
stirring motion with frequent jarring, squeezing or turning of the bowl to avoid air
bubbles. Spatulation should be completed in 45 – 60 seconds.
 Mechanical mixing requires 30 seconds. 
 Once the mixing has started, do not change the water powder ratio
Vibrate the mix, pour it into the impression either by the inversion or the boxing
method.
 If hard stone has a setting time (final set) of e.g. 10 - 12 minutes, it can be
worked on for approx. 5 minutes (approx. half the setting time). 

When the surface of the stone loses its shine, it can still be shaped for approx.
1 minute
 The impression should be removed after 30 minutes.
 Figure 2
Figure 1

Figure 3
GYPSUM AS INVESTMENT MATERIAL
 An investment can be described as a material that is suitable for forming a
mold into which a metal or alloy is cast. The operation of forming the mold is
described as investing.
 Properties Required of an Investment
 1. Easily manipulated:.
 2. Sufficient strength at room temperature:
 3. Stability at higher temperatures
 4. Sufficient expansion
 5. Beneficial casting temperatures
 6. Porosity
 7. Smooth surface
 8. Ease of divestment:
 9. Inexpensive.
 These ideal qualities are the basis for considering the behavior and
characteristics of casting investments.

Composition
 In general, an investment is a mixture of three distinct types of materials:

refractory material, binder material, and other chemicals

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENT

 A refractory material consisting of silica and gypsum as a binder

used to produce a mold for the metal casting process.
 The investments suitable for casting gold alloys contain 65% to 75%
quartz or cristobalite, or a blend of the two, in varying proportions;
25% to 35% of α-calcium sulfate hemihydrate; and about 2% to 3%
chemical modifiers.

 The calcium sulfate–bonded investment is usually limited to gold

castings and is not heated above 700° C. The calcium sulfate portion
of the investment decomposes into sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide
at temperatures over 700° C, tending to embrittle the casting metal.
Therefore, the calcium sulfate type of binder is usually not used in
investments for making castings of high-melting-point metals such
as palladium or base metal alloys.
PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENTS
 Effect of Temperature on Investment

 During the heating process, the refractory material is affected

differently by the thermal changes than is the gypsum binder.

 Effect on silicon dioxide refractories :All forms of silica are in their

α-forms in the investment, and during the heating process they are
converted completely or in part to their corresponding β-forms. This
transition involves an expansion of the mass, which helps to
compensate for the casting shrinkages
Effect of temperature on gypsum binders
 The binder used for gold alloy casting investments in dentistry is α-
calcium sulfate hemihydrate.
 During the investing process, some of the water mixed with the
investment reacts with the hemihydrates and is converted to calcium
sulfate dihydrate, whereas the remainder of the water is uniformly
distributed in the mix as excess water

 Up to about 105° C, ordinary thermal expansion occurs.

 Above 105° C, the calcium sulfate dihydrate is converted to anhydrous

calcium sulfate. Dehydration of the dihydrate and a phase change of
the calcium sulfate anhydrite cause a contraction. However, the α-form
of tridymite (which might be present as an impurity) is expanding and
compensates for the contraction of the calcium sulfate sufficiently to
prevent the investment from registering a serious degree of
contraction. At elevated temperatures, the α-forms of silica present in
the investment are converted to the β-forms, which cause some
additional expansion
Setting Expansion of Calcium Sulfate–Bonded Investment

 All the calcium sulfate–bonded investments currently available for

casting gold alloys have both setting and thermal expansion.
 The sum of these two expansions results in a total dimensional change
that is an essential property of dental casting investments because it
provides compensation for the casting shrinkage of the casting alloys
 If the investment is setting surrounded by air, the expansion is
referred to as normal setting expansion.
 On the other hand, if the mixed investment is setting in contact with
water, the expansion is substantially greater and is called Hygroscopic
setting expansion
 Such contact with water can be achieved in the commonly used casting
techniques of (1) placing a wet liner inside the casting ring in which
the investment is poured, or
 (2) if after investing, the casting ring is placed in a water bath.
 The presently accepted mechanism for hygroscopic setting expansion
also relates to the normal setting expansion that occurs when the
investment mix sets in contact with air.
A. Hygroscopic expansion
B. Thermal expansion
Factors affecting setting expansion

 Particle Size of Silica

 Silica/Binder Ratio

 Spatulation 

 Water/Powder Ratio

 Age of Investment

 Water Bath Temperature

Modifications of gypsum
  In addition to the standardized gypsum materials there are some that
have been characterized for special purposes
 For Eg. Orthodontist prefer a white stone or plaster for study models and
may even treat the surface with soap solution for added sheen. These
products have a longer working time for ease of trimming.
 The mounting stones or plasters are used to mount the cast on
articulator, are fast setting and have low S.E. The mounting plaster has
low strength to permit easy trimming and to separate the cast readily
from articulator´
 Since 1991, a plethora of new dental stones have appeared mostly as
time savers.One type is ready to use in 5 min. but it has little working
time.
 Another product changes color to help denote when it is ready for use.
 Most recently, the trend is to add a small amount of plastic or resin that
reduces brittleness and improves the resistance to scratching during the
carving of wax pattern.
 CARE OF GYPSUM

1. Care of powder
It should be stored in dry atmosphere in moisture proof metal
container.It should be kept clean with no dirt or foreign bodies
inside.It should be kept in airtight containers.

2. Care of the cast

If the gypsum cast has to be soaked in water it must be placed in a
water bath made for the purpose, in which plaster debris is allowed to
remain constantly at the bottom of the container to provide a
saturated solution of calcium sulphate at all times. This is known as
slurry water.
 
 
 INFECTION CONTROL
Gypsum products may be disinfected with

 Immersing the cast in disinfectant solution- It does not affect the

quality of gypsum cast
 Models can be disinfected by immersion in 1:10 dilution of sodium
hypochlorite for 30 minutes or with a spray of iodophor following
manufacturer’s instructions

 Adding disinfectant to the stones-Properties are altered such as

strength,setting expansion, setting time.

 Microwave irradiation
 CONCLUSION
 Gypsum products probably serve the dental profession more
adequately than any other materials. Dental plaster, stone, high-
strength/high-expansion stone, and casting investment constitute
this group of closely related products.

 The main reason for such diversified use is that the properties of
gypsum materials can be easily modified by physical and chemical
means.
 Gypsum materials are used extensively to make casts and dies from
dental impressions and can be used with any impression material.
Stone casts, which are stronger and resist abrasion better than
plaster casts, are used whenever a restoration or appliance is to be
made on the cast.
 High-strength dental stones make excellent casts or dies, readily
reproduce the fine detail of a dental impression.
REFERENCES
 

1.Philip’s Science of Dental Materials, Keneth J Anusavice,11th edition,chapter 10,gypsum products , pg 255-280
 
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3.C P Owen, : An investigation into the compatibility of some ' irreversible hydrocolloid impression materials and dental
gypsum products . Journal of Oral Rehabilitation, 1986,Vol3, pages 93-103
 
4..B N Permana, S Triaminingsih* and D J Indrani,The effects of a K2SO4 solution on the surface hardness of gypsum type III ,
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5..E.Schelb,Mazzocco,. Jones, and T. Prihoda. Compatibility of type IV dental stones with polyvinyl siloxane impression
materials ,Journal of Prosthetic dentistry 1987:58:1, 19-22.
 
6. H. MURATA, M. KAWAMURA, Physical properties and compatibility with dental stones of current alginate impression
materials: Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 2004 31; 1115–1122
 
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polyvinyl-siloxane and polyether elastomeric impression materials under dry and moist conditions. J Int Soc Prev
Community Dent. 2016 Jul-Aug; 6(4): 302–308

8. Jack D. Gerrow and Robert L. Schneider: A comparison of the compatibility of elastomeric impression materials, type IV
dental stones, and liquid media :The journal of prosthetic dentistry 1987:57:3
 

9.JLindquist T. Influence of surface hardener on gypsum abrasion resistance and water sorption. J.
Prosthet Dent. 2003 Nov;90(5):441-6.
10.. R. Earnshaw* and Barbara I. Markst .The measurement of setting time of gypsum products. Australian Dental
Journal, February, 1964

11. N Hillary et al The effect of K2 SO4 solution on type III gypsum surface
roughness 2017 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 884 012043
12. Shen C, Mohammed H,Kamar A Effect of K2SO4 and CaSO4 dihydrate
solutions on crystallization and strength of gypsum. J Dent Res. 1981
Aug;60(8):1410-7.
13. W. p. brandse. the influence of sodium chloride on the crystallization rate of
gypsum. j of chem 1977,2007-2010
14. A. S. Buchanan and Howard Warner. Study of the action of borax in retarding
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