LIMITS

OF
FUNCTIONS
 DEFINITION: LIMITS
The most basic use of limits is to describe how a
function behaves as the independent variable
approaches a given value. For example let us
examine the behavior of the function f ( x )  x  x  1
2

for x-values closer and closer to 2. It is evident from

the graph and the table in the next slide that the
values of f(x) get closer and closer to 3 as the values
of x are selected closer and closer to 2 on either the
left or right side of 2. We describe this by saying
that the “limit of f ( x )  x 2
 x  1 is 3 as x
approaches 2 from either side,” we write
 
lim x 2  x  1  3
x2
 y

f(x)
y  x2  x  1

f(x)

x
O
2

x 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.995 1.999 2 2.001 2.005 2.01 2.05 2.1
F(x) 2.71 2.852 2.97 2.985 2.997 3.003 3.015 3.031 3.152 3.31

left side right side

This leads us to the following general idea.

Formal Definition of a Limit of a Function:

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval
containing a, except possibly at the number a itself. The limit of f(x)
as x approaches a is L, written as,
EXAMPLE
Use numerical evidence to make a conjecture about the value of
x 1
lim
x 1 x 1

x 1
Although the function f(x) is undefined at x=1, this has no
x 1
bearing on the limit.
The table shows sample x-values approaching 1 from the left side and
from the right side. In both cases the corresponding values of f(x)
appear to get closer and closer to 2, and hence we conjecture that
x 1
lim  2 and is consistent with the graph of f.
x 1 x 1
 𝑥−1
𝑓  ( 𝑥 )=
√𝑥−1

x .99 .999 .9999 .99999 1 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01

F(x) 1.9949 1.9995 1.99995 1.999995 2.000005 2.00005 2.0005 2.004915
THEOREMS ON LIMITS
Our strategy for finding limits algebraically has two
parts:
• First we will obtain the limits of some simpler
function
• Then we will develop a list of theorems that will
enable us to use the limits of simple functions as
building blocks for finding limits of more
complicated functions.
We start with the following basic theorems,
which are illustrated in Fig 1.2.1

1.2.1 Theorem Let a and k be real numbers.

 a lim k  k
xa
 b lim x  a
x a
Example 1.
If f  x   k is a constant function, then the values of f(x)
remain fixed at k as x varies, which explains why
f(x)  k as x  a for all values of a.
For example,
lim 3  3 lim 3  3 lim 3  3
x -25 x 0 x 

Example 2.
If f  x   x, then x  a it must also be true that f  x   a .
For example,
lim x  0 lim x  2 lim x  
x 0 x -2 x 
The following theorem will be our basic tool for
finding limits algebraically.
This theorem can be stated informally as follows:

a) The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.

b) The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.
c) The limits of a product is the product of the limits.
d) The limits of a quotient is the quotient of the limits,
provided the limit of the denominator is not zero.
e) The limit of the nth root is the nth root of the limit.

• A constant factor can be moved through a limit symbol.

 THEOREM: LIMITS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS:
Let c be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric
function.
EXAMPLE : Evaluate the following limits.
1. lim  2 x  5   lim 2 x  lim 5 2. lim  6 x  12   lim 6 x  lim  12 
x 3 x 3 x 3
x 4 x 4 x 4

 2 lim x  lim 5  6( 3 )  12
x 4 x 4
 18 - 12
 2( 4 )  5
6
85
 13
3. lim  4  x ( 5 x  2 ) lim  4  x   lim  5 x  2 
  
x 3 x 3 x 3

 lim 4  lim x  lim 5 x  lim 2

 lim 4  lim x   5 lim x  lim 2 
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3

x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3

  4  3  5( 3 )  2 
  1 13 
 13
 2x 8x  1
4. lim 6. lim
x 5 5 x  4
x 1 x3
lim 2 x 2 lim x
 x 5
 x 5
8x  1
lim  5 x   lim  4  5 lim  x   lim  4   lim
x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 x 1 x  3
2 5  10
  9 3
25  4 21  
4 2

x 3
3

5. lim  3 x  6   lim  3 x  6   3

 
x 3
3
 lim 3 x  lim 6

 
x 3 x 3
3
 3 lim x  lim 6
x 3 x 3

   3  3   6    15 
3 3

 3375
 
OR

When evaluating the limit of a function at a

given value, simply replace the variable by
the indicated limit then solve for the value of
the function:

x 3
 2

lim 3 x  4 x  1  3  3   4  3   1
2

 27  12  1
 38
EXAMPLE: Evaluate the following limits.
x3  8
1. lim
x  2 x  2

Solution:
x 3  8   2  8  8  8 0
3
lim    (indeterminate)
x  2 x  2 22 0 0
Equivalent function:
 lim
 x  2  x 2  2 x  4 
x  2 x2

 lim x 2  2 x  4
x  2

   2   2  2   4
2

 4  4  4  12
x3  8
 lim  12
x  2 x  2
Note: In evaluating a limit of a quotient which
reduces to 0 , simplify the fraction. Just remove
0
the common factor in the numerator and
denominator which makes the quotient 0 .
0
To do this use factoring or rationalizing the
numerator or denominator, wherever the radical is.
 x2  2
2. lim
x 0 x
Solution:
x2  2 02  2 0
lim   (indeterminate)
x 0 x 0 0

Rationalizing the numerator:

x2  2 x2  2 x22
 lim   lim
x 0 x 
x  2  2 x 0 x x  2  2 
x 1 1 1 2
 lim  lim   
x 0 x  x2  2  x 0 x2  2 2 2 2 2 4

x2  2 2
 lim 
x 0 x 4
 8 x 3  27
3. lim
x
3 4 x2  9
2
Solution: 3
3
8    27
8 x 3  27 2 27  27 0
lim3    (indeterminate)
x 2 4x  9
2
3
2
99 0
4   9
2

By Factoring: 2
3 3
    9
 lim
  4
 2 x  3 4 x  6 x  9  lim 4 x  6 x  9   2   2 
2 2 6

x
3  2 x  3 2 x  3  x
3  2 x  3  3 
2 2  2   3 
 2 
999 27 9 3 3 2
    
33 6 2 2 2

8 x 3  27 3 2
 lim 
x
3 4x  9
2
2
2
 x3  2x  3
4. lim
x2 x2  5
Solution:
 2  2  2  3
3
x  2x  3
3
lim 
x 5  2
2 2
x 2
5
843

45
15

9
15

3
x3  2 x  3 15
 lim 
x2 x 5
2
3
 DEFINITION: One-Sided Limits
The limit of a function is called two-sided limit if
it requires the values of f(x) to get closer and closer
to a number as the values of x are taken from
either side of x=a. However some functions exhibit
different behaviors on the two sides of an x-value a
in which case it is necessary to distinguish whether
the values of x near a are on the left side or on the
right side of a for purposes of investigating limiting
behavior.
 x 1, x0
Consider the function f(x)  
x  1, x0

As x approaches 0 from the right, the

1 
values of f(x) approach a limit of 1, and
similarly , as x approaches 0 from the
left, the values of f(x) approach a
 -1
limit of -1.

In symbols ,
x x
lim  1 and lim  1
x o x x o x
This leads to the general idea of a one-sided limit
EXAMPLE:
x
1. Find if the two sided limits exist given f ( x ) 
x
SOLUTION
x x
lim  1 and lim  1
x o x x o x

1  x x
sin ce the lim  lim
x o x x o x

then the two sided limit does not exist

 -1
x
or lim does not exist.
x o x
EXAMPLE:
2. For the functions in Fig 1.1.13, find the one-sided
limit and the two-sided limits at x=a if they exists.
SOLUTION
The functions in all three figures have the same
one-sided limits as x  a , since the functions are
Identical, except at x=a.
These lim its are
lim f ( x )  3 and lim f ( x )  1
xa xa

In all three cases the two-sided limit does not exist as

x  a because the one sided limits are not equal.
EXAMPLE:
3. Find if the two-sided limit exists and sketch the graph of
6+x if x < -2 
g( x ) =  2 
 x if x  -2 
SOLUTION
a . lim  g ( x )  lim   6  x  b. lim  g ( x )  lim  x 2
x  2 x  2
x  2 x  2

  - 2
2
62
4 4
since the xlim
 2
g(x ) 

lim
x  2
g(x ) 

then the two sided limit exist and is equal to 4

or lim
x  2
g(x)  4
 y

x
-6 -2 4
EXAMPLE:
4. Find if the two-sided limit exists and sketch the graph
3 + x 2 if x < -2 
 
of f (x) =  0 if x = -2 
11 - x 2 if x > -2 
 
SOLUTION

x  2 x  2

a. lim  f ( x )  lim  3  x 2  
b. lim  f ( x )  lim  11  x 2
x  2 x  2

 3    2  11   - 2 
2 2

7 7
sin ce the lim  f ( x )  lim  f ( x )
x  2 x  2

then the two sided lim it exist and is equal to 7

or lim f ( x )  7
x  2
EXAMPLE:
5. If f(x)  3  2x  4 , det er mine if lim f(x) exist,
x2

and sketch the graph.

SOLUTION
a . lim f ( x )  lim 3  2 x  4 b. lim f ( x )  lim 3  2 x  4
x2 x2 x 2 x2

 3  2 2   4  3  2 2   4
 3  3

sin ce the lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )

x2 x 2

then the two sided lim it exist and is equal to 3

or lim f ( x )  3
x2
f(x)

(2,3)

x
2
DEFINITION: LIMITS AT INFINITY

If the values of the variable x increase without

bound, then we write x   , and if the values of
x decrease without bound, then we write x   .
The behavior of a function f ( x ) as x increases or
decreases without bound is sometimes called the
end behavior of the function.
For example ,
1 1
lim  0 and lim  0
x   x x   x
 x

1 1
lim  0 lim  0
x   x x   x
In general, we will use the following notation.
Fig.1.3.2 illustrates the end behavior of the function f when
lim f ( x )  L or lim f ( x )  L
x   x  
EXAMPLE x
 1
Fig.1.3.2 illustrates the graph of y   1   . As suggested by
 x

this graph,
x
 1
lim  1    e and
x  
 x

x
 1
lim  1   e
x  
 x
EXAMPLE

3x  5
1. lim
x  
6x  8
4x 2  x
2. lim 3
x  
2x  5
5x 3  2x 2  1
3. lim
x  
1  3x
x 2
2

4. lim
x  
3x  6

5. lim
x  
 x 6  5x 3  x 3 
 DEFINITION: INFINITE LIMITS
Sometimes one-sided or two-sided limits fail to exist
because the value of the function increase or
decrease without bound.
1
For example, consider the behavior of f ( x ) 
x for
values of x near 0. It is evident from the table and
graph in Fig 1.1.15 that as x values are taken closer
1
and closer to 0 from the right, the values of f ( x ) 
x
are positive and increase without bound; and as
x-values are taken closer and closer to 0 from the
1
left, the values of f ( x ) 
x are negative and
decrease without bound.
In symbols, we write
1 1
lim   and lim  
x 0 x x 0  x

Note:
The symbols   and   here are not real
numbers; they simply describe particular ways in
which the limits fail to exist. Thus it is incorrect to
write           0.
Figure 1.1.2 illustrate graphically the limits for rational
1 1 1
functions of the form , ,  .
 x  a  x  a 2
 x  a 2
 1 1
1. lim 4 4. lim 5
x 0 x x 0 x

1 1 1 1
lim    lim 5   
x 0 x4 0 x 0 x 0
1 1
2. lim 4 5. lim 5
x 0 x x 0 x

1 1 1 1
lim 4    lim 5   
x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0
1 1
3. lim 4   6. lim 5  
x 0 x x 0 x
 3x x  2  means we take
7. a. lim value of x close to 2 from left , say 1.8
x2 x2
x  2  1.8  2  0.2

lim-
3x

 3  2   6 
  
x2 x-2 0 0 

3x x  2  means we take
b. lim
x2 x2 value of x close to 2 from right , say 2.1
x  2  2.1  2  0.1

lim
3x

 3  2 

6 
  
x 2 x-2 0 0 

3x
c. lim 
x2 x  2
 R( x )
If f(x)
Q( x )

lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )

x a x a x a

  
  
  
  
EXAMPLE
2 2 1
1. lim   and lim 
x 3 x3 x 3 x3 3

 2 2    1 
then , lim               
x 3  x  3 x3   3 

Note : Addition / Subtractio n

     c  
     c  
 2x x3
2. lim   and lim  1
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
 2x x  3 
then , lim           1   
x 1  x  1 x  1 

3x 2x  6 1
3. lim   and lim 
x2 x2 x2 x4 3
 3x 2x  6    1 
then , lim               
x 2  x  2 x4    3 

Note :
      c          c   
      c          c   
 VERTICAL AND
HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES
DEFINITION:
The line x  a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of
the function y  f  x  if at least one of the following
statement is true:
a . lim f ( x )  
xa

b. lim f ( x )  
x a

c. lim f ( x )  
xa

d . lim f ( x )  
xa
The following figures illustrate the vertical asymptote x  a .

0 0

x=a x=a

lim f ( x )   lim f ( x )  
xa xa
The following figures illustrate the vertical asymptote x  a .

0 0

x=a x=a

lim f ( x )   lim f ( x )  
xa xa
DEFINITION:
The line y  b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph
of the function y  f  x  if either
lim f ( x )  b or lim f ( x )  b
x   x  
The following figures illustrate the horizontal asymptote
yb

0 0
y=b y=b

lim f(x)  b lim f(x)  b

x  x 
Determine the horizontal and vertical asymptote of
3
the function f  x   and sketch the graph.
x 2

a. Vertical Asymptote: b. Horizontal Asymptote:

Equate the denominator Divide both the numerator
to zero to solve for the and the denominator by the
vertical asymptote. highest power of x to solve for
x20 x 2 the horizontal asymptote.
Evaluate the limit as x
approaches 2
3 3 3
lim   
x 2 x  2 22 0


3 3
x  0 Intercepts :
lim   0
x  x 2 2 1 0
 1 3 3
x x  If x  0 , f  x   
02 2
3 3 3
0
If f( x )  0 , 0  ; 03
lim x    0 x2
x  x 2 2 1 0
 1 therefore there is no x  int ercept
x x 

Thus , 0 is a horizontal asymptote .

 3
f  x 
x 2

HA:y=0
0
 3
 0 , 
  2

VA: x=2
Determine the horizontal and vertical asymptote of
2x  1
the function f  x   and sketch the graph.
x3
a. Vertical Asymptote: b. Horizontal Asymptote:
2x 1
x3 0  x  3 
x x 2
2x  1 7 lim  2
x  x 3 1
lim   
x 3 x  3 0 x x
 x  3 is a vertical asymptote  y  2 is a horizontal asymptote

Intercepts :
0 1 1
If x  0 , f  x   
03 3
2x  1 1
If f( x )  0 , 0  ; x
x3 2
 2x  1
f  x 
x3

HA:y=2
o

VA:x=3
SQUEEZE THEOREM
LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS USING THE SQUEEZE PRINCIPLE

The Squeeze Principle is used on limit problems where the

usual algebraic methods (factoring, conjugation, algebraic
manipulation, etc.) are not effective. However, it requires
that you be able to ``squeeze'' your problem in between
two other ``simpler'' functions whose limits are easily
computable and equal. The use of the Squeeze Principle
requires accurate analysis, algebra skills, and careful use of
inequalities. The method of squeezing is used to prove
that f(x)→L as x→c by “trapping or squeezing” f between
two functions, g and h, whose limits as x→c are known
with certainty to be L.
SQUEEZE PRINCIPLE :
Assume that functions f , g , and h satisfy g(x)  f(x)  h(x)

and lim g(x)  L  lim h(x)

xa x a

then lim f(x)  L

xa
Theorem 1.6.5 (p. 123)
EXAMPLE:
Evaluate the following limits.
tan x sin 2 x
1. lim 2. lim
x 0 x x 0 x
sin 3 x 2 - cos3x - cos4x
3. lim 4. lim
x 0 sin 5 x x 0 x

SOLUTION:
tan x  sin x 1  sin 2 x  sin 2 x 2 
1. lim  lim    2. lim  lim   
x 0 x x 0
 x cos x  x 0 x x 0
 x 2
 sin x  1  sin 2 x
  lim  lim   2 lim
 x 0 x  x 0 cos x
 x 0 2x
  1 1  1   2  1  2
  sin 3 x 
sin 3 x   2 - cos3x - cos4x
3. lim  lim  x  4. lim
x 0 sin 5 x x 0  sin 5 x 
 
x 0 x
 x 
 lim
 1  1  cos 3 x  cos 4 x
sin 3 x x 0 x
3
 lim 3x
 1 - cos3x   1 - cos4x 
x 0
5
sin 5 x   lim    lim 
5x  x 0 x   x 0 x 
31 3  1 - cos3x   1 - cos4x 
    3 lim    4 lim 
51 5  x 0 3x   x 0 4x 
  3  0   4  0  0