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Impedance
1
Learning Objectives
• Define a phasor and use phasors to represent sinusoidal voltages and
currents.
• Determine when a sinusoidal waveform leads or lags another Graph
a phasor diagram that illustrates phase relationships.
• Define and graph complex numbers in rectangular and polar form.
• Perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using
complex numbers and illustrate them using graphical methods.
• Represent a sinusoidal voltage or current as a complex number in
polar and rectangular form.
• Define time domain and phasor (frequency) domain.
• Use the phasor domain to add/subtract AC voltages and currents.
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Learning Objectives
• For purely resistive, inductive and capacitive elements define
the voltage and current phase differences.
• Define inductive reactance.
• Understand the variation of inductive reactance as a function
of frequency
• Define capacitive reactance.
• Understand the variation of capacitive reactance as a function
of frequency
• Define impedance.
• Graph impedances of purely resistive, inductive and capacitive
elements as a function of phase.
3
Complex numbers
• A complex number (C) is a number of the form: C a jb ,
which is known as the rectangular form.
• where a and b are real and j 1
• a is the real part of C and jb is the imaginary part.
• Complex numbers are merely an invention designed to allow
us to talk about the quantity j.
• j is used in EE to represent the imaginary component to avoid
confusion with CURRENT (i).
• Solving AC circuits is simplified (no, really) through the use
of phasor transforms, which we will now discuss at length…
4
Geometric Representation
• In the rectangular form (C=a+jb), the x-axis is the real axis and the y-axis
is the imaginary (j) axis.
• The polar form (C=Z Ѳ), where Z is the distance (magnitude) from the
origin and Ѳ is the angle measured counterclockwise (CCW) from the
positive, x (or real) axis (the y-axis is still the imaginary (j) axis).
C = 6 + j8 C = 1053.13º
(rectangular form) (polar form)
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Conversion Between Forms
a
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Example Problem 1
• Convert (5∠60) to rectangular form. C a jb (rectangular form)
a C cos 5cos(60) 2.5 C C (polar form)
b C sin 5sin(60) 4.3
C 2.5 j 4.3 (rectangular form) a C cos
b C sin
C a 2 b2
• Convert 6 + j 7 to polar form. b
tan 1
C a 2 b 2 (62 7 2 ) 9.22 a
b 7
tan 1 tan 1 49.4
a 6
C 9.2249.4 (polar form)
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Properties of j
j 1
j ( 1)( 1) 1
2
1 1 j j
2 j
j j j j
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Addition and Subtraction
of Complex Numbers
• Easiest to perform in rectangular form.
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Multiplication and Division
of Complex Numbers
• Multiplication and Division is easiest to perform in polar form:
• Multiplication: multiply magnitudes and add the angles:
(670) (230) 6 2(70 30) 12100
• Division: Divide the magnitudes and subtract the angles:
(670) 6
(70 30) 340
(230) 2
C a jb C ( )
C * a jb C( )
10
Example Problem 2
ANS: 95.8∠-7.2
(polar)
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Phasor Transform
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Phasors
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Representing AC Signals
with Complex Numbers
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Formulas from Trigonometry
• Sometimes signals are expressed in cosines instead of sines.
• Below are some formulas to refresh your memory of some of
the trig functions:
cos(t ) sin(t 90 )
sin(t ) cos(t 90 )
cos(t 180 ) cos(t )
sin(t 180 ) sin(t )
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Using Phasors to Represent
AC Voltage and Current
• Looking at the sinusoid equation, determine Vm and the phase
offset Ѳ: v(t ) Vm sin(t 30 ) V
Vm 50V
2. VExpress
RMS
VRMS as avoltage
50sin(ωt+45⁰) 35.35V phasor.
V RMS 35.3545V
2 2
Example:
If v1 = 5 sin(100t) and v2 = 3 sin(100t - 30°), then v1 leads v2 by 30°
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Phase Difference w/ Phasors
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Example Problem 5
i1 = 20 sin (t) mA.
i2 = 10 sin (t+90˚) mA.
i3 = 30 sin (t - 90˚) mA.
Determine the equation for iT.
Im
Recall that I RMS I RMS
2
Im 20mA Im 10mA
I1 14.10mA I2 7.0790mA Now to get back to polar:
2 2 2 2
C a 2 b 2 14.12 14.32 ) 20.1
Im 30mA
I3 21.2 90mA b 14.3
2 2 tan 1 tan 1 45.4
a 14.1
I T I1 I 2 I 3
IT 14.10mA 7.0790mA 21.2 90mA
I RMS 20.1 45.4
Remember, it's easier to add in rectangular form so we need to convert: Now plug the polar back into the sinusoid,
For the real (a) portion of the rectangular complex number (a C cos ): but remember to get back to I m :
14.1cos(0) mA 7.07 cos(90) mA 21.2 cos( 90) mA 14.1 iT (t ) 20.1* 2 sin ( wt 45.4) mA
For the imaginary (jb) portion of the rectangular complex number (b C sin ):
14.1sin(0) mA 7.07sin(90) mA 21.2sin( 90) mA 14.3 iT (t ) 28.4sin ( wt 45.4) mA
Put it together in the conversion and you get: IT 14.1 j14.3
22
R, L and C circuits
with Sinusoidal Excitation
• R, L, C have very different voltage-current
relationships. Recall:
vR iR R (Ohm's law)
dvC
iC C (Capacitor Current relationship)
dt
diL
vL L (Inductor Voltage relationship)
dt
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The Impedance Concept
• Impedance (Z) is the opposition (i.e. resistance) that a circuit
element presents to current in the phasor domain. It is
defined as:
V V
Z Z
I I
V IZ
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Impedance
• Impedance is a complex quantity that can be made up of
Resistance (R) (real part) and Reactance (X) (imaginary
part).
Z R jX ( )
• Unit of impedance is Ohms ().
Z
X
q
R
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Resistance and Sinusoidal AC
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Resistors
• For resistors, voltage and current are in phase:
VR VR VR
ZR 0 R0 R
I I I
Z R R0
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Example Problem 6
Two resistors R1=10 kΩ and R2=12.5 kΩ are in series.
vL LI m sin t 90
ZL
iL I m sin t
LI m
90
2 L90 ( )
Im
0
2
• It should be noted that for a purely inductive circuit voltage
leads current by 90º.
29
Inductive Impedance
Z L L90 j L ( )
30
Inductance and Sinusoidal AC
31
Inductance
• For inductors, voltage leads current by 90º.
VL VL 90 VL
ZL 90
L90
j L
I I 0
I
Z L jX L X L 90
X L L 2 fL
32
Impedance and AC Circuits
Solution Technique
1. Transform time domain currents and voltages
into phasors.
2. Calculate impedances for circuit elements.
3. Perform all calculations using complex math.
4. Transform resulting phasors back to time
domain (if reqd).
34
Example Problem 7
For the inductive circuit: Determine VL and IL
vL = 40 sin (ωt + 30˚) V Graph vL and iL
f = 26.53 kHz Z L jX L X L 90
L = 2 mH
X L L 2 fL
40V 90
VL 28.330V Z L 2fL90
2
Z L 2 (26.3kHz )(2mH )90
VL V Z L 330.590
ZL I L L 90
I ZL
28.3V 30V
IL 85 60mA Notice
33390 90°phase
difference!
iL
IL iL I L * 2
2
iL 85 2 sin(t 60)
vc Vm sin t
Zc
ic CVm sin t 90
Vm
0
2 1
90 ( )
Vm
C 90 C
2
• It should be noted that, for a purely capacitive circuit current
leads voltage by 90º.
36
Capacitive Impedance
• Impedance can be written as a complex number (in
rectangular or polar form):
1 1
Zc 90 j ( )
C C
37
Capacitance and Sinusoidal AC
38
Capacitance
VC VC 0 VC 1 1
ZC 90
90
j
I I 90
I C C
ZC jX C X C 90
1 1
XC
C 2 fC
39
ELI the ICE man
Mnemonic
ELI the ICE man
rre e
ct ge
lta e
ge
nt
a t
Cu anc
ci t e n
Vo nc
du ta
pa urr
In Vol
Ca C
I leads E
E leads I
• Inductors:
• Capacitors:
42
QUESTIONS?
43