—


 
  
 

 
p

p  
 m


m

 

Thevenin¶s theorem

Thevenin's theorem states that it is possible to simplify any

linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit
with just a single voltage source and series resistance
connected to a load. Linear circuit means that we're dealing
with passive components, such as resistors, inductors and
capacitors.
Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power
systems and other circuits where one particular resistor in
the circuit (called the ³load´ resistor) is subject to change,
and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial
value of load resistance, to determine voltage across it and

current through it.
a
 Virst step - disconnect  

Then calculate how much voltage appears across the open

load terminals.
V = [10/(10+20+40)] * 40

V = 5.7 V

This voltage becomes

ΠThevenin source voltage
 Mecond step - replace each source in the original circuit with
its own internal resistance. Vor voltage sources, this means
a short-circuit.

Then calculate resistance across the open load terminals.

R = [(10+20)*40]/(10+20)+40 = 17.14 

Thi r i t n Thevenin ur e resist n e

Ñ
 Thevenin equivalent circuit

Now that there is

an equivalent
circuit, we can
insert the load.

Assuming that RLOAD is 5  calculate

1. voltage across RLOAD ,

2. current through RLOAD
3. dissipated power on RLOAD
first without applying Thevenin theorem and then with
help of Thevenin theorem

 Thevenin theorem to a parallel circuit having two sources of
EMV and three resistors

I = (20-10)/(10+20) = 0.333 A
voltage drop across 20 resistor is 0.333 A * 20  = 6.67 V

Thevenin voltage VAB = 20 ± 6.67 = 13.33 V


 Thevenin resistance is

RAB = (10*20)/(10+20) = 6.67 

Thevenin equivalent circuit is

6.67 

13.33 V



ü
 Norton¶s theorem

Norton¶s Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing

several energy sources and resistances can be replaced by
a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Mingle
Resistor".

å
 To find the Norton¶s equivalent of the above circuit we firstly
have to remove the centre 40ȍ load resistor and short out
the terminals A and B to give us the following circuit.

I = 0V/ 0 = A

I I2 I2 = 20V/20 = A

IAB = I + I2 = 2 A
0
 Mecond step - replace each source in the original circuit with
its own internal resistance. Vor voltage sources, this means
a short-circuit.

RAB = (10*20)/(10+20) = 6.67

Norton current IM = 2A and Norton resistance RM is 6.67

00
 Norton equivalent circuit

0
 Maximum power transfer theorem
Is another useful analysis method to ensure that the
maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load
resistance when the value of the load resistance is exactly
equal to the resistance of the power source.
he load resistance resultin in reatest power dissipation
must be equal in value to the equivalent hevenin source
resistance, then S
but if the load
resistance is lower or
hi her in value than the
hevenin source
resistance of the
network, its dissipated
power will be less than
0a maximum.
 RM = 25ȍ
RL is variable between 0 - 100ȍ
VM = 100V

I = VM/(RM+RL)

P = I2*RL
è 6 6
6
  
  
  
  
  
  
0Π  
 I = VM/(RM+RL)

P = I2RL

VM2 VM2 RL VM2

P= RL = =
(RM+RL) 2 2
RM +2RMRL+RL 2 RM 2
+2RM+RL
RL
minimum
RM 2
d +2RM+RL
RL
-RM2 -RM2
= 2 +1 2 +1=0 RM = RL
d RL RL RL
0Ñ
 One very useful application of impedance matching to
provide maximum power transfer is in the output stages of
amplifier circuits, where the spea ers impedance is matched
to the amplifier output impedance to obtain maximum sound
power output. This is achieved by using a D t hin
Tr nsfor er to couple the load to the amplifiers output.

NP is the number of primary turns and NM the number of

0 secondary turns of the transformer
 If an 8ȍ loudspea er is to be connected to an amplifier with
an output impedance of 1000ȍ, calculate the turns ratio of
the matching transformer required to provide maximum
power transfer of the audio signal. Assume the amplifier
source impedance is Z1, the load impedance is Z2 and the
turns ratio is given as N.

Zout = N2 * Zload

0
N = M R (Zout/Zload) = M R (1000/8) = 11.2
 Direct current (DC) motors
The operation of a DC motor is based on the following
principle:
A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field,
perpendicular to the lines of flux, tends to move in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux.
This relationship is best explained by using the RIGHT-
HAND RULE VOR MOTORM

0ü
 A DC motor rotates as a result of two magnetic fields
interacting with each other. The armature (rotor) of a DC
motor acts li e an electromagnet when current flows through
its coils. Mince the armature is located within the magnetic
field of the field poles, these two magnetic fields interact

V=B*I*÷ (N)

0å

 o      

0
 Magnetic field due to Magnetic field distribution due
the field current. to the armature current.


 Resultant magnetic field ARMATURE REACTION is the
distortion of the main field in a
motor by the armature field.
This causes the neutral plane
to be shifted in the direction
opposite to that of armature
rotation. Inter-poles and
compensating windings are
used to reduce the effect of
armature reaction on motor
operation

1. Resultant magnetic field is reduced (earlier saturation

point)
2. Increased losses in iron
3. Mhifting of neutral plane
a 4. Increased voltage between commutator's lamellas.
 COMMUTATION IN A DC MOTOR is the process of
reversing armature current at the moment when unli e poles
of the armature and field are facing each other, thereby
reversing the polarity of the armature field. Li e poles of the
armature and field then repel each other, causing armature
rotation to continue.

Œ
 Dimensional view of the simple armature

Ñ
 O

t t r r ti 


 Voltage across commutator segment

A practical d.c
macine armature
will ave large
num er of slots
ousing many coils
along wit a large
num er of
commutator
Voltage across ruses segments, to get
te quality of te
voltage similar to
te nature of a
attery voltage.

 Torque
The force developed is directly proportional to the strength of
the main field flux and the strength of the field around the
armature conductor. The field strength around each armature
conductor depends on the amount of current flowing through
the armature conductor. Therefore, the torque which is
developed by the motor can be determined
T = V * r (Nm) V = B * I * ÷ (N) B = º/A (Wb/m2 = T)

T = B * I * ÷ * r = (º/A) * I * ÷ * r = K * º * I (Nm)
K=÷*r/A T = K1*ºf*Ia
where:
T = torque (Nm)
K = a constant depending on physical size of motor
ºf = field flux, number of lines of force per pole
ü Ia = armature current
 Bac EMV
When a conductor cuts lines of force, an EMV is induced in
that conductor. Current to start the armature turning will flow
in the direction determined by the applied DC power source.
After rotation starts, the conductor cuts lines of magnetic
field. The EMV that is induced in the armature will produce a
current in the opposite direction. The induced EMV, as a
result of motor operation, is called bac -electromotive force,
BEMV.

BEMV = K*ºf*n

K = constant
ºf = field flux strength
n = speed of the armature
å
The electrical power developed by the armature Pel = Ea * Ia

Produced mechanical power Pel = *T = 2 n*T (W)

* I = 2 n*T
= 2 n* K1*ºf = K2*ºf*n
T = K1*ºf*I

* I = 2 n* K1*ºf*I = K2*ºf*n (V)

Armature current can be found by using Ohm¶s law

V - Ea where:
Ia = Ia = armature current
a V = terminal voltage
Ea = bac EMV
Ea = V ± Ia*
a
a = armature resistance
a
 There are four different methods for supplying the dc current
to the motor

Meparate excitation
Mhunt connection
Meries connection
Compound

a0
 Equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor

 

è è

º



 


 

 


 T = K1*ºf* Ia
c
Ea = V ± Ia* Ra
n b
Ea a
n=
K2 ºf

a ± ºf constant
b ± Ea and ºf change at same rate
a c - ºmax decrease faster then Ea T
 Equivalent circuit of a shunt dc motor

 T
T = Kx-Ky*n
  m

º 

 
 

 n
 Ea T
n=
Im = Ia + If ºf = constant K2 ºf
n
T = K1*ºf*Ia V ± Ia * Ra
n=
Ea = V ± Ia * Ra K¶2
Ea = V ± K¶1*T/ºf = V ± T*K Im
aa Ea = K2*ºf*n K2*ºf*n = V-T*K
 !"   "  

 
EaIm
T=
2 n
 m

 


  
º 
Im = Iam

 º

T = K1*ºf*Im = K¶1* I2m

Ea = V ± Im*R R = Rf+Ra
V = Ea + Im*R = K2*ºf*n + ImR 
V - ImR V
n= = - K3 þ
aŒ
K2 ºf K¶2 Im
 !"   "  #" 
h



  
 


º h

 



V = Ea + (Ra + Rfs)*Ia
Im = Ia + Ifp = Ifs + Ifp

Vfp = V = Rfp*Ifp $

aÑ

 Mtarting DC motors
Because the dc resistance of most motor armatures is low
(0.05 to 0.5 ohm), and because the bac emf does not exist
until the armature begins to turn, it is necessary to use an
external starting resistance in series with the armature of a
dc motor to eep the initial armature current to a safe value.
As the armature begins to turn, bac emf increases; and,
since the bac emf opposes the applied voltage, the
armature current is reduced. The external resistance in
series with the armature is decreased or eliminated as the
motor comes up to normal speed and full voltage is applied
across the armature.
Controlling the starting resistance in a dc motor is
accomplished either manually, by an operator, or by any of
several automatic devices. The automatic devices are
usually just switches controlled by motor speed sensors.
a
 If we apply full voltage to a stationary shunt motor, the
starting current in the armature will be very high and we
run the ris of:

a. Burning out the armature;

b. Damaging the commutator and brushes, due to heavy
spar ing;
c. Overloading the feeder;
d. Mnapping off the shaft due to mechanical shoc ;
e. Damaging the driven equipment because of the sudden
mechanical hammer-blow.

All dc motors must, therefore, be provided with a means to

limit the starting current to reasonable values, usually
between 1.5 and twice full-load current.

a
 Limiting Mtarting Current

e  luti n i te ele ti n f a ntr l tat limit te

tarting urrent, eiter inerting reitan e in te ir uit r
uing a re u e - ltage  ur e f er.

Mtarting Reit r

Mtarting reit r are ne ear in e te reitan e f a

m t r armature i er l . Ex ei e urrent ill fl  en
ltage i firt a lie unle urrent i limite in  me
a . A ing reitan e in erie it te armature in ing
re u e initial urrent. It ma ten e rem e after unter
emf a een uilt u .
aü
 Vace-plate starter with fuse

Mchematic diagram of a manual face-plate starter for

a shunt motor

aå
 Bare copper contacts are connected to current-limiting resistors
è1, è2, è3, and è4. Conducting arm 1 sweeps across the
contacts when it is pulled to the right by means of insulated
handle 2. In the position shown, the arm touches dead copper
contact M and the motor circuit is open. As we draw the handle to
the right, the conducting arm first touches fixed contact N.
The supply voltage s immediately causes full field current If to
flow, but the armature current /a is limited by the four resistors in
the starter box. The motor begins to turn and, as the bac EVM
builds up, the armature current gradually falls. When the motor
speed stop to rise any more, the arm is pulled to the next contact,
thereby removing resistor è1 from the armature circuit. The
current immediately jumps to a higher value and the motor quic ly
accelerates to the next higher speed. When the speed again
levels off, we move to the next contact, and so forth, until the arm
finally touches the last contact. The arm is magnetically held in
this position by a small electromagnet 4Ê which is in series with
the shunt field.
Œ
 þ
þ

þ
þ

   %  

þ   þ þ   þ
Œ0
 Vace-plate starter with OLR

Line current < 1.5 normal full load current

Œ
 Vind out total resistance of face plate starter and number of
it¶s contacts if the motor¶s supply voltage U is 240 V dc,
armature current Ia is 40 A and armature windings resistance
Ra is 0.40 .

I2 = 1.5*Ia = 1.5*40 = 60 A
R = U / I2 ± Ra = 240 / 60 ± 0.4 = 3.6 
I1 = (U-E1) / (R+Ra) E1 = U ± I1 (R+Ra)
E1 = U ± 1.1*Ia (R+Ra) = 220 ± 1.1*40*(3.6 + 0.4) = 64 V
I2 = (U-E1) / (R-R1+Ra) R1 = R+Ra+(E1/I2)-(U/I2) = 1.06
I1 = (U-E2) / (R-R1+Ra) E2 = 111 V
I2 = (U-E2) / (R-R1-R2+Ra) R2 = 0.78 
R3 = 0.57 ; R4 = 0.22 ; R5 = 0.30 ; R6 = 0.22 
Œa
R7 = 0.15 ; R8 = 0.10 
 Reduced-voltage source

A thyristor converts the fixed voltage alternating current

(AC) of the power source to an adjustable voltage,
controlled direct current (DC) output which is applied to the
ŒŒ armature of a DC motor.
 Methods of speed control of DC motors
Mpeed of DC motors change with load, especially with series
dc motor. There is a distinguish between change in the
speed due to change in load and change due to regulation.
The aim of regulation is to vary speed at constant load or at
various loads to eep constant speed of the motor shaft.

V ± Ia*Ra
n=
K*ºf

If the supply voltage or armature resistance is changed then

this is volt
e ontrol.

If magnetic field of stator¶s winding is changed then this is

field ontrol.
΄
 ri shunt compound

è è è


     

  
èÚ
  èÚ  èÚ

Rheostat R is for armature voltage control

Rheostat Rf is for field control

Œ
 Mpeed regulation principle

nnom n
armature
voltage control field control
Œ
 Armature voltage control

At constant supply voltage the regulation is possible with

inserting variable resistor in armature circuit. By increasing
the resistance, the voltage drop Ia* (Ra+R) will increase and
speed will reduce.

Ia*Ra
n=
K*ºf

This means that rpm can be regulated in the range under the
nominal speed. Efficiency of the motor is lower due to losses
in resistors.

Ο
 Vield control

Vield control is more economical compared with voltage

control by additional resistors. Mpeed is controlled by
resistor which change current and magnetic flux. If magnetic
flux is reduced then the speed of motor increase.

U ± Ia*Ra
n=
K*ºf

In practice that method is more used to control the speed in

range above nominal speed. In case of controlling the speed
under the nominal speed, a limiting factor would be magnetic
saturation of iron.

Ό
 Electronics converters and chopper drives
The electronics
speed controller
wor s by varying
the average
voltage sent to the
motor. The way is
to switch the
motor's supply on
and off very
quic ly. If the
switching is fast
enough, the motor
doesn't notice it, it
only notices the
average effect.
Ñ
 Modern controllers adjust speed and acceleration by an
electronic process called pulse width modulation. Choppers
switching devices such as silicone-controlled rectifiers
rapidly interrupt (turn on and turn off) the electricity flow to
the motor.
High power (high
speed and/or
acceleration) is
achieved when the
intervals (when the
current is turned off)
are short. Low
power (low speed
and/or acceleration)
occurs when the
intervals are longer.
Ñ0
 The methods of dc motor speed control

Type of Permanent Meparately Mhunt Meries

control Magnet Excited Connect Connected

Vary input
Yes Yes No No
voltage

Vary shunt
No Yes Yes No
field current

Vary armature
Yes Yes Yes Yes
resistance

Ñ
 Meries DC motor
The advantage of a Meries Wound Motor is that it develops a
large torque and can be operated at low speed. It is a motor
that is well-suited for starting heavy loads; it is often used for
industrial cranes and winches where very heavy loads must
be moved slowly and lighter loads moved more rapidly.
Mince the armature and field in a series-wound motor are
connected in series, the armature and field currents become
identical, and the torque can be expressed as T = K*I2a
2 As the speed decreases, the torque
T = K*I a
for a series wound motor increases

sharply. As load is removed from a
series motor, the speed will increase
sharply. Vor these reasons, series-
wound motors must have a load
 connected to prevent damage from
Ña
high speed conditions.
 Mhunt DC motor
h h r triti  of DC hunt motor i r oo
 
rul tion, n
it i l ifi
 ont nt  

motor, n thouh th  

o lihtl
r   lo

i inr 
.
Mhunt-woun
motor r A hunt DC motor h 
u
in in
utri l n

r in torqu whn  

utomoti li tion inr . h

r in torqu
whr ri ontrol of .  
i  u
b th
 
n
torqu r rm tur rit n olt 
ro
rquir
. n
rm tur r tion. At  lu

of  
n r 2.5 tim th r t

 
, rm tur r tion
bom xi,  uin
r i

r  in fil
flux, n

 r i

lin in torqu until t ll
ь
on
ition i r h
.
 Compound DC motors

DC compound motors are desirable for a variety of

applications because it combines the characteristics of
series-wound motor and a shunt-wound motor. The DC
compound motor has a greater torque than a shunt motor due
to the series field; however, it has a fairly constant speed due
to the shunt field winding. Loads such as presses, shears,
and reciprocating machines are often driven by compounded
motors.

ÑÑ
 DC Motors - Advantages

1. Easy to control speed - the higher the armature voltage,

the faster the rotation. This relationship is linear to the motor's
maximum speed.
V ± Ia*Ra
n=
K*ºf
These motors are usually given a rated speed and a
maximum speed, such as 1750/2000 rpm.
Most industrial DC motors will operate reliably over a speed
range of about 20:1, down to about 5-7% of base speed. This
is much better performance than the comparable AC motor.
This is partly due to the simplicity of control, but is also partly
due to the fact that most industrial DC motors are designed
with variable speed operation in mind, and have added heat
Ñ dissipation features which allow lower operating speeds.
 2. Easy to control torque - in a brushed DC motor, torque
control is also simple, since output torque is proportional to
current. If you limit the current, you have just limited the
torque which the motor can achieve. This ma es this motor
ideal for delicate applications such as textile manufacturing.
T = K*ºf*Ia
3. Mimple, cheap drive design
Varying the speed of a brushed DC motor requires little
more than a large enough potentiometer. In practice, these
have been replaced by the MCR and PWM drives, which
offer relatively precisely control voltage and current.
Large DC drives are available up to hundreds of horsepower.
However, over about 10 horsepower careful consideration
should be given to the price/performance tradeoffs with AC
inverter systems, since the AC systems show a price
Ñ
advantage in the larger systems
 DC Motors - Disadvantages

1. Expensive to produce
2. Can't reliably control at lowest speeds
3. Physically larger
4. High maintenance
5. Dust

The disadvantage of commutator motors are that spar ing

tends to occur between commutator segments and brushes,
which eats away the metal of the segment. Even without
spar s the rubbing of brush on segments wears away both
and more maintenance is required than in the case of
brushless machines

Ñü
 AC Motor vs. DC Motor

AC Motor DC Motor
Mingle - speed transmission Multi-speed transmission
Light weight Heavier for same power
Less expensive More expensive
95% efficiency at full load 85-95% efficiency at full load
More expensive controller Mimple controller
Motor/Controller/Inverter Motor/controller less
more expensive expensive

Ñå
 Direct current (DC) generator

D.C generators may be classified as

separately excited generator,

shunt generator,
series generator
compound generator.


 Meparately excited generator

In a separately excited generator field winding is energised

from a separate voltage source in order to produce flux in
the machine. Mo long the machine operates in unsaturated
condition the flux produced will be proportional to the field
current.

Ea = K*ºf*n ( V )

0
 Even when there is no field current, a small voltage is
generated due to residual flux. If field current is increased, º
increases linearly initially and no load characteristic follows
a straight line. However, when saturation point is reached, º
practically becomes constant and hence Ea too becomes
constant. In other words, no load characteristic follows the
B-H characteristic, hence this characteristic is sometimes
also called the magnetisation characteristic of the machine.


 Open circuit characteristic at different speed

Vor a constant field

current, ratio of the
generated voltages
becomes the ratio of
the speeds.

a
 Load characteristic
Load characteristic essentially describes how the terminal
voltage of a generator changes for varying armature current
Ia. Virst at rated speed, rated voltage is generated across
the generator terminals with no load resistance connected
across it, by adjusting the field current. Mo for Ia = 0, V = Ea
should be the first point on the load characteristic.
The terminal voltage is
expected to decrease due to
various drops such as
armature resistance drop and
brush voltage drop. In an
uncompensated generator,
armature reaction effect
causes additional voltage
Œ
drop.
 Characteristics of a shunt generator
self excited
ener tor
In field winding iron there
exists some residual field.
Therefore, if the generator
is driven at rated speed, we
should expect a small
voltage ( nºres ) to be
induced across the
armature. But this small
voltage will be directly applied across the field circuit since it is
connected in parallel with the armature. Therefore a small
field current flows producing additional flux, so this additional
flux aids the already existing residual flux, total flux now
becomes generating more voltage. This more voltage will
drive more field current generating more voltage. Both field
Ñ
current and armature generated voltage grow cu ul tively.
   lt  il

 fin l st l r tin
int (M) will  t int
f intrscti n twn
t O.C.C n
t fil

rsist nc lin.

 t t l fil
circit
rsist nc is t V-I
c r ctristic f t fil

circit wic is str it

lin.


 Critical field resistance

If field circuit resistance is increased, final voltage decreases

as point of intersection shifts toward left. The field circuit
resistance line which is tangential to the O.C.C is called the
critic l field resist nce. If the field circuit resistance is more
than the critical value, the machine will fail to excite and no
voltage will be induced


 Critical speed

A shunt generator builds up voltage at a certain speed. Now,

if the speed of the prime mover is reduced without changing
Rf, the developed voltage will be less as because the O.C.C
at lower speed will come down.
If speed is further
reduced to a certain
critical speed (ncr), the
present field resistance
line will become
tangential to the O.C.C
at ncr. Vor any speed
below ncr, no voltage
built up is possible in a
shunt generator.
ü
 A shunt generator driven by a prime mover, can not built up
voltage if it fails to comply any of the conditions listed below.

1. The machine must have some residu l field. To ensure

this, one can at the beginning excite the field separately with
some constant current. Now removal of this current will
leave some amount of residual field.

2. Vield winding connection should be such that the residual

flux is stren
thened by the field current in the coil. If due to
this, no voltage is being built up, reverse the field terminal
connection.

3. Total field circuit resistance must be less than the critic l

field resist nce.

å
 Load characteristic of shunt generator

While loading the machine the load resistances decreased

so generator delivers load current IL.

Vor shunt generator, Ia = IL - If. Mo, increase of IL will mean

increase of Ia as well. The drop in the terminal voltage will be
caused by the usual IaRa drop, brush voltage drop and
armature reaction effect. Apart from these, in shunt
generator, as terminal voltage decreases, field current, and
for that reason º also decreases causing additional drop in
terminal voltage . In shunt generator, the field current is
decided by the terminal voltage.


 The plot of terminal voltage versus armature current
which is called the lo d ch r cteristic.

If the machine is loaded such that terminal voltage becomes

V1 and the armature current is Ia1. The field current at this
load can be read from the field resistance line corresponding
to the existing voltage V1 across the field.
0
 EG1-V1 = P
Vor a particular load, the current Ia, the terminal voltage V
and the generated voltage EG are related by EG1-V = IaRa.
This relationship along with OCC and Rf line can be used to
predict the load characteristic.


 Meries generator
In series d.c machine,
there is one field winding
wound over the main
poles with fewer turns
and large cross sectional
area. Meries winding is
meant to be connected in
series with the armature
and to be designed for
rated armature current.

a
 There will be practically no voltage or very small voltage due
to residual field under no load condition (Ia = 0). However,
field gets strengthened as load develops. Variation in load
resistance causes the terminal voltage to vary. Terminal
voltage will start falling, when saturation sets in and
armature reaction effect becomes pronounced at large load
current.
Hence, series EG;V
generators are not EG
used for delivering
power at constant
voltage. Meries
generator found
application in
V
boosting up voltage in
d.c. transmission
Πsystem. I =I =I
a f g
 Compound generator
A compound generator has two separate field coils wound
over the field poles.

The coil having large number of turns and thinner cross

sectional area is called the shunt field coil and the other
coil having few number of turns and large cross sectional
area is called the series field coil. Meries coil is connected
in series with the armature while the shunt field coil is
Ñ
connected in parallel with the armature.
 Load characteristic for compound generator


 
  

When an electric switch is turned on or off in some circuit

(for example in a circuit consisting of resistance and
inductance), transient currents or voltages (quic ly changing
current or voltage) will occur for a short period after these
switching actions. After the transient has ended, the current
or voltage in question returns to its steady state situation (or
normal steady value). Duration of transient phenomena are
over after only a few micro or milliseconds, or few seconds
or more depending on the values of circuit parameters (li e
è
L nd C).


 DC transients in a simple R-L circuit

The voltage across the inductor is not proportional to the

current flowing through it but to the rate of change of the
current with respect to time, di/dt. The voltage across the
inductor (VL) is zero when the current flowing through an
inductor does not change with time. This implies that the
inductor acts as a short circuit under steady state dc current.
In other words, under the steady state condition, the inductor
terminals are shorted through a conducting wire.
If current changes very rapidly with time, then inductor
causes a large opposition voltage across its terminals.

ü
 Ideal inductor

An ideal inductor, li e an
ideal voltage source, has no
resistance and it is excited
by a dc voltage source VM.

The voltage across the inductor is not

According KVL
proportional to the current flowing
 ` 6 through it, but to the rate of change of


'

` the current with respect to time, i.e.
 ` 6
 di(t)/dt.
'
` This implies that the current through

 inductor increases with increase in
 ` 6 ' ` 
6
time and theoretically it approaches

 to infinity as ` = but in practice,
å  `6 ' ` this is not really the case.
 Real or practical inductor
A practical inductor has
some resistance and it is
exactly equal to the
resistance of the wire used
to wind the coil.

A practical inductor connected in series with an external

resistance and this circuit is excited with a dc voltage.

ü
 KVL equation for R-L circuit the current




` 
` ' G expression is


` 6
 
`


 
` 6 >   `6 0


`  
Actual time (t) in sec Growth of current in inductor (A)
`' @G ' G



  è  6 ' 





'  
6 ü

è


` ' a     å  à
è

` ' Π  6 ' 
å à
è


ü0 ` '     åå à
è
 Theoretically at time the ` ' = current in inductor reaches its
steady state value but in practice the inductor current
reaches 99.3% of its steady state value at time ` '  sec.

The expression for voltage across the external resistance

  `
è
è0 '  ` 6 è0 ' 0  
è0
è 

The expression for voltage across the inductor or coil

  `
 
` `

`  0
`  ; 0 0  



 

ü
 Growth of current in R-L circuit

üa
 Voltage response in R-L circuit

üŒ
 Definition of Time Constant ( ) of R - L circuit

It is the time required for any variable or signal (in our case
either current i(t) or voltage v(t)) to reach 63.2% of its final
value.
' 

è
 
llr t ti
  t t ( ), t
r r i
l t
rrt ir  
tl it r  t t

t t ( r fi l  l) ikl.  t tr  
, irit
it l rr ti
  t t ( ) r i
 l  r 
  it t k l r ti
 t r  t
 t t.

üÑ
 Vall or Decay of current in a R-L circuit

Because there is no source to sustain the current flow in

inductor, the magnetic field in inductor starts to collapse and
this, in turn, will induce a voltage across the inductor. The
polarity of this induced voltage across the inductor is just in
reverse direction compared to the situation that occurred
during the growth of current in inductor. This means that the
current through inductor will still flow in the same direction,
but with a magnitude decaying toward zero.
ü
 Appling KVL around the closed circuit

 ` 6
 ` 6 '

`



`
 `6 ' 


Time Constant ( ) for exponential decay response

Vor the source free circuit, it is the time by which the

current falls to 36.8 percent of its initial value.

'
6
è
ü
 Vall of current in R-L circuit

üü
 DC transients in a simple R-C circuit

The voltage across the capacitor depends on how much

charge was deposited on the plates and also how much
capacitance the capacitor has.


[

'
V  '
V


The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio of charge per
plate to the applied voltage but it mainly depends on the
physical dimension of the capacitor. If the area of the plates
is larger, the more would be the amount of charge stored
over the surface of the plates, resulting higher value of
capacitance. On the other hand, if the ³spacing´ between the
plates is closer, accumulates more charge over the parallel
üå
plates and thus increases the value of the capacitance.
 The current-voltage relationship of the capacitor

 ` 6 
` 6 `  `
 `6 ' '

`  '
 `6 ` O
`

` 6 is voltage across the

`  '  ` `
` G
`G capacitor at time ` 6

It can be seen that when the voltage across a capacitor is

not changing with time, or, in other words, the capacitor is
fully charged and the current through the capacitor is zero.
This means that the capacitor resembles as an open circuit
and bloc s the flow of current ³through´ the capacitor.

å
 Ideal and real capacitors

An ideal capacitor has an infinite dielectric resistance and

plates (made of metals) that have zero resistance.
However, an ideal capacitor does not exist as all dielectrics
have some lea age current and all capacitor plates have
some resistance.

The model of a real capacitor

å0
 KVL equation for R-C circuit

 
` 6 >  `6

 ` 6

 ' 
 ` 6
`
Expression for capacitor voltage

0
`

0
`
 ` 6 '  0   è
   

è

If initial voltage across the capacitor at time µt=0¶ is zero

 
0
`

 ` 6 ' 0   è
$
$

å
 Voltage across the resistance Time constant of
each of the
0
U ` exponential
` 6
 U  ` 6
 

expressions
may be found as
O ri rrt tr  t  it r 'è

` 
è 
0
` for RC circuit.
è

` ' ' 
åa è è
 Growth of voltage in R-C circuit

åŒ
 Current / Charge response in R-C circuit

åÑ
 Discharging of a capacitor or fall of a capacitor voltage in dc
circuits
Applying KVL around
the loop


`
è

` ' G
`

Voltage across the capacitance Discharging current

0 through the capacitor
U `
è
 `6  0
  `
 `6 ' '  

Voltage across the resistance 
0
 `
`6 '   ` 6 ' 
 

Time constant
å

 Discharge Current / Charge response in R-C circuit

å
 Vall of voltages in R-C circuit

åü
 or i l  trti 
t

K wig t ti
  t t w    trt t  rg r

i rg rv.

Mt 1: Dr w t fi l

v l li 

r ff
t ti
  t t.
C t t rigi t
ti it.

Mt 2: C  it
 t l t li
r w


r ff  tr
ti
  t t fr
ti
it. Pr jt t t
fi l v l li 

åå
 t t tw it.
 Repeating this process will give a series of tangents to the
charging curve. The more closer the points are the graphical
method will be more accurate.

The construction of the discharge curve is the same but

0 inverted.
 Typical RC Waveform

0 0
 Mquare Wave Mignal

If we apply a M 
  voltage to the RC circuit whose

frequency matches that exactly of the 5RC time constant of
the circuit, then the voltage waveform across the capacitor
would loo li e this

0 
 An 8RC Input Waveform

An 4RC Input Waveform

0 a
 Vrequency response

Integrator

The Integrator is a type of „
  
circuit that

converts a square wave input signal into a triangular
waveform output. If the RC time constant is long compared to
the time period of the input RC waveform the resultant output
will be triangular in shape and the higher the input frequency
the lower will be the output amplitude compared to that of the
input.

`
0
 `6 ¢

`G
`6 ` >  ` G6

0 Œ
 Differentiator
The Differentiator is a †   
type circuit that
converts a square wave input signal into high frequency
spi es at its output. If the RC time constant is short compared
to the time period of the input waveform the capacitor will
become fully charged quic ly before the next change in the
cycle. When the capacitor is fully charged the output voltage
across the resistor is zero. The arrival of the falling edge of
the input waveform causes the capacitor to reverse charge
giving a negative output spi e, then as the square wave input
changes during each cycle the
output spi e changes from a
positive value to a negative
value.
°
`

` ' 
0 Ñ °`
 Itr t r

5RC = 5*103*10-6 = 0.005 s

T=1/f = 1/100 = 0.01 s

0 
 Itr t r

5RC = 5*103*10-5 = 0.05 s

T=1/f = 1/100 = 0.01 s

0 
 Differentiator

5RC = 5*104*10-6 = 0.05 s

T=1/f = 1/100 = 0.01 s

0 ü
 Differentiator

5RC = 5*103*10-6 = 0.005 s

T=1/f = 1/100 = 0.01 s

0 å
 Mine Wave Input Mignal
Low Pass or a High Pass filters can be made with the
frequency response of these two circuits dependant upon
the input frequency value.

00
 Low Pass Vilter

RC = 0.01s; f = 10Hz; Vmax = 10V

Chanel A Vmax = 8.47 V

000
 Low Pass Vilter

RC = 0.01s; f = 100Hz; Vmax = 10V

Chanel A Vmax = 1.6 V

00
 High Pass Vilter

RC = 0.01s; f = 10Hz; Vmax = 10V

Chanel A Vmax = 4 V

00a
 High Pass Vilter

RC = 0.01s; f = 100Hz; Vmax = 10V

Chanel A Vmax = 10 V

00Œ
 M    
 


Resistive and inductive series circuit

An inductor consists of a length of wire wound into a coil.

This wire will usually have significant resistance, so the,
each turn of the coil has both properties, i.e. inductance and
resistance. This effect can be represented by a pure inductor
in series with a resistor of value equal to the resistance of
the coil.

00Ñ
 Mince voltage and current must be in phase for a resistor,
the voltage drop VR across the resistor must be in phase
with the current I . Current l
s y 900 in pure inductive
circuit
so the voltage drop VL cross the inductor le ds the
current I y 900. The supply voltage V is the ph sor
su of Vè nd VL
nd is found y
completin
the p r llelo
r m or
the tri n
le. The angle between
supply voltage
and current is
called the µphase
angle¶, and is
V2 = V2è  V2L given by the
symbol ij. In this
cos ij =Vè/V c se
current
sin ij =VL/V lags supply
00 voltage by ij0.
tan ij =VL/Vè
 Vor a resistor, the effect limiting current for a given voltage is
resistance, and è = V/I . For pure inductor
the effect is
inductive re ct nce
nd XL = V/I .
Thus it can be seen that the ratio V/I is the effect limitin
the
current in circuit; for a circuit including resistance and
inductive reactance this effect is due to a combination
of both. The voltage drop across the resistor obeys Ohm¶s
law, so that Vè = Iè. Mimilarly, VL = IXL

V/I = è2  X2L

Vor an AC circuit, the ratio V/I is known s impedance (Z)

measured in ohms.

Z = è2  X2L
00
 Impedance triangle for resistive and inductive a.c. series
circuit

Z2 = è2  X2L

The angle ij included between sides è nd Z is the s me

s the ph se n
le etween current nd volt
e for a
given circuit.

cos ij =è/Z XL = 2ʌf L

sin ij =XL/Z
tan ij =XL/è
00ü
 Power triangle for resistive and inductive a.c. series
circuit

S2 = P2  Q2
M ± apparent power
P ± active (true) power
± reactive power

The angle ij included between sides P nd S is the s me

s the ph se n
le etween current nd volt
e for a
given circuit.

cos ij =P/S P = V I cosp (W)

P = I2 R (W)
sin ij =Q/S M = V I (VA)
tan ij =Q/P = V I sinp (VAr)
00å
 Resistive and capacitive series circuit

Whatever type of capacitor is used,

due to plates resistivity, an internal
resistor is often connected in series,
so the concept of a resistive and
capacitive series circuit is an
important one.

The voltage drop Vè cross the

resistor will be in phase with this
current, while the voltage drop VC
cross the c p citor will lag the
current by 900. The supply voltage V
is the ph sor sum of the component
volt
es Vè nd VC
nd is found by
0
completing the parallelogram.
 Mince current leads voltage in
this case, the angle f is called a
³leading phase angle´.

V2 = V2è  V2C

cos ij =Vè/V
sin ij =VC/V
tan ij =VC/Vè

00
 Impedance triangle for resistive
and capacitive a.c. series circuit

Z2 = è2  X2C

The angle ij included between sides è nd Z is the s me

s the ph se n
le etween current nd volt
e for a
given circuit.

cos ij =è/Z XC = 1/2ʌf C

sin ij =XC/Z
tan ij =XC/è
0
 R ± C ± L series circuit
Current is ta en as reference since
the same current passes through all
three components. The voltage drop
Vè cross the resistor is in ph se with
the current, while the voltage drop VL
cross the inductor nd the volt
e
VC cross the c p citor le d by 90
and lag by 90, respectively. The
latter two mentioned voltages are in
direct opposition, so the effective
value is the difference between them.

V2 = V2è  (VL-VC)2

IZ2 = Iè2  (IXL-IXC)2

0a
 Impedance diagram for resistive, inductive and capacitive
a.c. series circuit

Z = è2  (XL-XC)2

cos ij =è/Z

sin ij =(XL-XC)/Z

tan ij =(XL-XC)/è

The phasor diagram and the impedance diagram are

drawn for a condition where XL is
re ter th n XC
so th t
VL exceeds VC. In this c se
inductive reactance is greater,
and circuit current lags supply voltage. Had XC een
greater than XL
with VC exceedin
VL
the circuit current
0Œ
would le d the supply voltage.
 Meries resonance
The inductive and capacitive reactances act in opposition
so only their difference is the effective reactance. The
impedance is less than it would be if either reactance were
connected with the resistor without the other.
The current is limited only by this lower impedance and is
thus higher. This greater current passes through both
reactances, producing high potential differences across
them, but as the two voltages oppose each other they tend
to cancel, so that the supply voltage can be smaller than
both or one of them.

XL = XC Z = è2  (XL-XC)2 = è

0Ñ
 Vrom circuit, phasor and
impedance diagram it can
be seen that at resonance
a series circuit has the
following properties:
1. The current and supply
voltage are in phase so
that ij = 0.
2. The circuit impedance Z
will e equ l to the circuit
resist nce è
nd will thus
e at its minimum possible
value due to the
cancellation of reactances.
3. The current will be at a
maximum value due to
0 minimum impedance.
 This series-resonant effect, with inductive and capacitive
reactances equal and opposite, may be brought about in a
number of ways:
1. Change in inductance, give a proportional change in
inductive reactance (note that XL = 2 f L
so XL ! L if f is
const nt).
2. Change in capacitance, giving an inversely proportional
change in capacitive reactance (note that XC = /2 f C so
XC ! 0/C if f is const nt).
3. Change in frequency. If L nd C re const nt
XL ! f nd
XC ! 0/f
so an increase in frequency will increase inductive
reactance and decrease capacitive reactance.
At some frequency these two v lues the 1
inductive and capacitive reactances would fr =
be equal and series resonance would occur. 2 ¥LC

0

 V ri tion of resist nce

re ct nce nd imped nce The circuit resistance è is
with frequency in è-L-C un ffected y frequency ch n
e
series circuit nd rem ins const nt. Inductive
reactance XL incre ses with
frequency
while c p citive
re ct nce XC reduces. At the
point where these two curves
intersect, inductive and
capacitive reactances become
equal but opposite and cancel,
leaving the circuit resistance
alone to limit current.
The impedance falls to a minimum, equal to the resistance at
this frequency, which is called the
  
 Êand
given the symbol Ú
As frequency incre ses
inductive
reactance exceeds capacitive reactance, and their difference
0ü
joins with resistance to increase the impedance again.
 V ri tion of current with
frequency in
ener l series
circuit
The current in the circuit will
vary as frequency changes,
reaching a pea at the resonant
frequency fr . Bec use
impedance is minimum and
current maximum, series
resonance is sometimes called
2 

 22

 2 

  
Meries resonance has useful applications in filter circuits,
where one frequency is allowed to pass through while
others are bloc ed, and in ripple control,
In many other cases, however, its high current and high
0å component voltages present dangers to be avoided.
 Vactor of a Meries Resonant Circuit
or Voltage magnification
The voltage magnification produced by series resonance is
termed as -factor of the series resonance circuit.

h lt 
ifi ti  i r ti t  lt 
r r 
i
ti r t  r  iti r t  ( i r t

) 
 l  lt .

VL L L 2 fr L 1
= = = = fr =
V R è è 2 ¥ LC

L 0 L
= =
è ¥ LC è C
0a
 Band-pass filter

The factor in giving a

measure of the voltage
magnification at resonance,
also gives a measurement of
the selectivity of the circuit.
The greater the voltage
magnification at resonant
frequency the more selective
the circuit is of the band of the
frequencies centered on the
resonant frequency.

0a0
 Band-pass filter

0 L
= = 4.47
è C
0a
 Band-pass filter

0 L
= = 14.14
è C
0aa
 Mingle phase parallel a.c. circuits

There are many possible arrangements of parallel a.c.

circuits. The simplest method of solution is to treat each
branch as a simple series circuit. Calculate the current in
each branch, and its phase relative to the supply voltage,
which will be common to all branches.

0aŒ
 Resistive and inductive parallel circuit
Vor parallel circuits the voltage across each component is
equal to supply voltage.

Z=V/I I2 = I2è  I2L P = V I cosp (W)

R = V / IR cos ij =Iè / I P = IR2 R (W)
XL = V / IL sin ij =IL / I M = V I (VA)
= V I sinp (VAr)
XL = 2 f L tan ij =IL / Iè
0aÑ
 O 
t , S t  


itt 

Ë2 = G2  B2

G -  
t  i th
 r f h w
h irit
conducts current G = 0/è; (0/ = S) Siemens
B - susceptance is the measure of how much a circuit
conducts current with respect to time B = 0/X; (0/ = S)
Siemens
Y - admittance is reciprocal of impedance Ë = 0/Z; (0/ = S)
Siemens
0a
 Resistive and capacitive parallel circuit

Z=V/I I2 = I2è  I2C

R = V / IR cos ij =Iè / I P = V I cosp (W)
XC = V / IC P = IR2 R (W)
sin ij =IC / I M = V I (VA)
XC = 0/2 f C tan ij =IC / Iè = V I sinp (VAr)

0a
 Inductive and capacitive parallel circuit

Three phasor diagrams are possible

IL>IC IC>IL IC=IL

I = IL-IC I = IC-IL I=0
Z=V/I
XL = V / IL
XC = V / IC

XC = 0/2 f C

XL = 2 f L
0aü
P = V I cosp = 0 (W)

 O r lll .. irit

0aå
 V V
ZLè = è2  XL 2 ILR = IC =
ZLR XC
VL XL VL XL
tanp1= = sinp1= =
VR R V ZLR
VR R
cosp1= =
V ZLR
ILR sinp1 - IC
tanp =
ILR cosp1
ILR cosp1
cosp =
I

I= (ILè cosp0)2  (ILè sinp0 ± IC)2

0Œ
 Parallel resonance

Resonance occurs when vertical

component of current ILR is equal
to IC current. At this condition the
supply current I is in phase with
the supply voltage V.

Resonant frequency

IC = ILR sinp1

R2
fr =
2
1
( LC
1
L2
) Hz

0Œ0
 Current at resonance

current at resonance IC = ILR sinp1

V V 2

IC = I
= 
= C
XC 

V
C
Ir = (A)


The current is at a minimum at resonance.

0Œ
 Dynamic resonance

The current at resonance is in phase with voltage. The

impedance of the circuit acts as a resistance. This is
dynamic resistance RD or dynamic impedance.

V V L
= RD = ()
Ir VRC RC
( L
)

èejector circuit ± the parallel resonant circuit is often

described as a rejector circuit since it presents its maximum
impedance at the resonant frequency and the resonant
current is minimum.
0Œa
 Vactor of a Parallel Resonant Circuit
or Current Magnification

The factor of a parallel resonant circuit is the ratio of

the current circulating in the parallel branches of the circuit
to the supply current, i.e. the current magnification.

circulating current IC ILR sinp1 XL

= = = = tanp1 =
supply current Ir ILR cosp1 R

2 fr L
factor at resonance =
R

0ŒŒ
0΄
0Œ
0Œ
0Ο
 


 
 



Three-phase AC theory

F r d y's L w - The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a

coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux threading the coil or the rate at which magnetic flux is
cut for a wire-moving across magnetic field lines.

Lenz's L w - The direction of the induced e.m.f. is the same

as that of a current whose magnetic action would oppose the
flux change.
«

` '  

`
0Ό
 Mingle coil

If a machine is constructed to rotate a magnetic field around

a set of stationary wire coils with the turning of a shaft, AC
voltage will be produced across the wire coils as that shaft
is rotated, in accordance
with Varaday¶s Law of
electromagnetic
induction. This is the
basic operating principle
of an AC generator.

0Ñ
 ÿO    
T olt g from n lctromc nic l ltrn tor, c ng
from on ol rity to t otr on, t olt g ll c nging
mot r idly t t zro (³croor´) oint nd mot loly
t it  . T r on y n lctromc nic l ltrn tor
out ut in-  ÿO i du to t yic of it o r tion.
T olt g roducd by t t tion ry coil by t motion
of t rot ting m gnt i ro ortion l to t r t t ic t
m gntic flux i c nging r ndicul r to t coil. T t
r t i gr tt n t m gnt ol r clot to t
coil, nd l t n t m gnt ol r furtt  y
from t coil.

`  '  
`

0Ñ0
 Phasor as rotating vector
A phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude
and phase angle information of a sinusoidal function.

Vm = Vm cos (t + p) + j Vm sin (t + p) rectangular

t + p polar
Vm = Vm

Vm = Vm e(jt + p) exponential
0Ñ
 Three coils
The voltages produced by the
three stationary coils by the
motion of the rotating magnet are
proportional to the rate at which
the magnetic flux is changing
perpendicular to the coils and the
phase angle shift of 120o between
them is a function of the actual
physical angle shift of the three
pairs of windings.

0Ña
 A three ph se power system uses three volt
e sources t
different ph se n
les from each other. A three phase power
system can deliver more power at less voltage with smaller
cross sectional areas conductors than single phase systems.

A three-phase generator consists of a rotating magnet

(rotor) surrounded by a stationary winding (stator).

0ь
 Two major type of the 3 phase circuits
Ia
a Ia
a a
Uab a
b Uab Ica R
Uan R b
Ubc Uca Uca
c Ubc R Iab
n Ubn c
R Ic R
Ic b
b c
R Ib Ibc
c Ucn
Ib

MTAR CIRCUIT DELTA CIRCUIT

0ÑÑ
 Delta circuit
Ia
a Phasor diagram
a
Uab Ica R Ia
b
Ubc Uca
R Iab Iab
c
Ic R
b
c Ibc
30o
Ib

-Ica
Uab = Ubc = Uca = line voltages
Ia = Ib = Ic = line currents Ica Ibc
Ia = 2*Iab cos 30o
Ia = 2*Iab V3/2 = V3 Iab Iab = Ibc = Ica = phase currents
Ia = Iab ± Ica
IL O-300
Iph = O300 IL = V3 Iph UL = Uph
0Ñ
V3
 Mtar circuit
Ia Phasor diagram
a
a
Uab
b Uab
Uan R
Ubc Uca
c Uan
n n Ubn
R
Ic
b 30o
R
c Ucn -Ubn
Ib

Uab = Ubc = Uca = line voltages Ucn Ubn

Ia = Ib = Ic = line currents
Uab = 2*Uan cos 30o Uan = Ubn = Ucn = phase voltages
Uab = 2*Uan V3/2 = V3 Uan U =U ±U ab an bn
UL
Uph= O-300 O300
0Ñ UL = V3 Uph IL = Iph
V3
0Ñü
 There are four possible connections:

Y-Y connection (Y-connected source with a Y-

connected load)

Y-ǻ connection (Y-connected source with a ǻ-

connected load)

ǻ-ǻ connection (ǻ -connected source with a ǻ-

connected load)

ǻ-Y connection (ǻ -connected source with a Y-

connected load)

0Ñå
 Three wires balanced delta-connected load

The load power factor is

lagging, and is given by 45°.
Vor a Õ l nced delt -
connected lo d
the ph se
volt
es nd the line volt
es
re equal in magnitude. The
line currents, in magnitude,
are ¥3 times the phase
currents, and the phase
currents lead the
corresponding line currents
by 30°.

0
 Vour wires balanced star-connected load

Vor a Õ l nced st r-
connected lo d
the neutr l
current is lw ys zero. The
line currents and phase
currents are equal in
magnitude, and the line
currents are in phase with
the corresponding phase
currents. The line voltages,
in magnitude, are ¥3 times
the phase voltages, and the
phase voltages lag the
corresponding line voltages
by 30°.
00
 Calculation of power
The total power delivered by a three-phase source, or
consumed by a three-phase load, is found by adding the
power in each of the three phases. In a balanced circuit,
this is the same as multiplying the average power in any
one phase by 3, since the average power is the same for
all phases.
Total active power

'    «
X

This expression can be rewritten in terms of the line voltage

and the line current for either star or delta connected
balanced loading as follows:

0  ' 

 « X 6

 The total reactive power Q (VAr) for either star or delta
connected balanced loadings are given by
 ' 
 «



The total apparent (complex) power S (VA) for either star or

delta connected balanced loadings are given by

 '   '    6  '  > 6

The ratio of the active Power triangle

power P to the pp rent
power or the magnitude of M&6
the complex power S is the &6
power f ctor
which p
h ppens to Õe cosij in the
0a
sinusoidal case.
6
 Power measurement in a three phase AC system
The three-phase
power can be
measured by
three single-
phase
wattmeters
having current
coils in each line
and potential
coils connected
across the given
line and any
common
junction.  ' 
>  > O
0Œ
 In general, n-ph se power c n Õe me sured Õy me ns
of ní1 w ttmeters. The method is v lid for Õoth Õ l nced
nd unÕ l nced circuits with either the load or the source
unbalanced.

0Ñ
 The wattmeter readings are given by ÿ ' ÿ 
ÿ  ë  —ÿ
where A is the n
le Õetween the ph sors VAB nd IA
nd  ' 
ë —
where C is the n
le Õetween the ph sors VCB nd IC
The total real power delivered to the load is given by the
l
eÕr ic sum of the two wattmeter readings.
 ' ÿ > 

0
 Determination of power factor for the balanced load

O 

  O
 « ' a ' a ' a
O > 

>   > O

plot of the load power factor versus the ratio Xl /Xh
where Xl
nd Xh re the lower and higher readings of the wattmeters,
0
respectively.
 
 2     

The   
is the most
commonly used type of ac motor. Its
simple, robust construction, costs
relatively little to manufacture.
The induction motor has a rotor
that is not connected to an external
source of voltage. The induction
motor derives its name from the
fact that ac voltages are induced in
the rotor circuit by the
2 
2   of the stator. In
many ways, induction in this motor
is similar to the induction between
the primary and secondary
0ü windings of a transformer.
0å
 Rotating magnetic field
The principle of rotating magnetic fields is the ey to the
operation of most ac motors. Both synchronous and
  types of motors rely on rotating magnetic fields in
their stators to cause their rotors to turn. The idea is simple.
A magnetic field in a stator can be made to rotate
electrically, around and around. Another magnetic field in
the rotor can be made to run after it by being attracted and
repelled by the stator field. Because the rotor is free to turn,
it follows the rotating magnetic field in the stator.
Rotating magnetic fields may be set up in two-phase or
three-phase machines. To establish a rotating magnetic field
in a motor¶s stator, the number of pole pairs must be the
same as (or a multiple of) the number of phases in the
applied voltage. The poles must then be displaced from each
other by an angle equal to the phase angle between the
0
individual phases of the applied voltage.
 Mtator
 tator i
a
  of ral ti la
iatio of
al
i
or at iro.  ar 
a
la


totr to for
a ollo li

r (tator or) it lot.
Ooil of ilat
ir ar irt
ito t lot. a
ro i of oil totr it t or it rro
, for

a ltro
at i.. a air of ol.

00
 The individual phase windings
are equally spaced around the
stator. This places the
windings 120º apart.

The stator windings can be

connected to a three-phase ac
input and have a resultant
magnetic field that rotates

0
0a
 Rotating magnetic field

At point 1, the magnetic field in coils 1-1A is maximum with

polarities as shown. At the same time, negative voltages are
being felt in the 2-2A and 3-3A windings. These create
weaer magnetic fields, which tend to aid the 1-1A field. At
point 2, maximum negative voltage is being felt in the 3-3A
windings. This creates a strong magnetic field which, in
turn, is aided by the weaer fields in 1-1A and 2-2A. As
each point on the voltage graph is analyzed, it can be seen
that the resultant magnetic field is rotating in a clocwise
direction. When the three-phase voltage completes one full
cycle (point 7), the magnetic field has rotated through 360º.

0Œ
0Ñ
 Mpeed of rotating magnetic field

The magnetic field created in Rotating frequency  = 2 f

the stator rotates at a

  speed (ns). n = 1 rpm

f
ns = 120 [ rpm ]
P

where:
ns = the synchronous speed T = 60 s
of the stator magnetic field in
rpm 60 60 P
P = the number of poles on T= =
n f
the stator
f = the supply frequency in 1 4 f
 =2 = [ rad/s]
0 Hertz T P
 Rotor
The rotor is made up of several thin steel laminations with
evenly spaced bars, which are made up of aluminum or
copper, along the periphery. In the most popular type of rotor
(squirrel cage rotor), these bars are connected at ends
mechanically and electrically by the use of rings. Almost 90%
of induction motors have squirrel cage rotors. This is because
the squirrel cage rotor has a simple and robust construction.
The rotor consists of a
cylindrical laminated core
with axially placed parallel
slots for carrying the
conductors. Each slot
carries a copper, aluminum,
or alloy bar. These rotor
bars are permanently short-
0
circuited at both ends by means of the end rings.
 The rotor slots are not exactly parallel to the shaft. Instead,
they are given a sew for two main reasons. The first reason
is to mae the motor run quietly by reducing magnetic hum
and to decrease slot harmonics. The second reason is to help
reduce the locing tendency of the rotor. The rotor teeth tend
to remain loced under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic
attraction between the two. This happens when the number of
0ü stator teeth are equal to the number of rotor teeth.
   

t r r  -r t r
t r i  ri ti  f t
irrl   i
ti 
t r. il t t t r i t 
 
t t f t irrl  
t r, it   t f i
i  t
r t r i r  t  rt-irit
, t r tr
i t
t t
f li ri.  r l fl i

i tr l rit r

 t t r.

0å
 2
22 2
of electromagnetic induction states that:
«
'

`
Induced e.m.f. in rotor¶s winding is a type of induction by
motion, since the stator¶s magnetic field rotates and ³cuts´
the rotor¶s winding at right angle.

Induction by motion (rotation) «

 '

`

 `6 '
 
 ` 6
`
 ` 6 '   `
ÿ

ÿ

u

0ü
 The e.m.f. generated in the rotor conductor circulate a
current, which in turn produce own magnetic field, the effect
of which is to strengthen the flux density on the left hand side
and weaen that on the right hand side. Consequently a force
is exerted on the rotor tending to drag it in the direction of the
rotating flux. This force tends to cancel the relative motion
between the rotor and the stator¶s rotating field.
Interaction between the
two magnetic field
generates twisting force,
or torque. As a result,
the motor rotates in the
direction of the resultant
torque.
 '     6
0ü0
 The difference between the
speed of the rotating stator
field and the rotor speed is
called 
. The smaller the
slip, the closer the rotor
speed approaches the stator
field speed.
The rotor runs slower than the
speed of the stator field. This
speed is called the Base
Mpeed (nr). That is why the
induction motor is called an
³ 
  !2 ³.

The speed of the rotor depends upon the torque

requirements of the load. The bigger the load, the stronger
the turning force needed to rotate the rotor. The turning force
can increase only if the rotor- induced e.m.f. increases. This
e.m.f. can increase only if the magnetic field ³cuts´ through
the rotor at a faster rate. To increase the
2 

between the field and rotor, the rotor must slow down.
Therefore, for heavier loads the induction motor turns slower
0ü
than for lighter loads.
 The value of the slip at  
2
 
 2.
full load varies from An increase in load will cause
about 8 % for small the rotor to slow down or
motors to about 3 % for increase slip. A decrease in load
larger machines. The will cause the rotor to speed up
induction motor may or decrease slip. The slip is
therefore be regarded as expressed as a percentage and
practically a   2 can be determined with the

 
. following formula:

synchronous speed ns - nr
s (%) =
ns
rotor speed
where:
ns = the synchronous speed in
rotor slip
rpm
torque on rotor nr = the rotor speed in rpm
0üa
 Mtarting induction motors
Induction motors, at rest, appear just lie a short circuited
transformer and if connected to the full supply voltage, draw
a very high current nown as the ³„ "# 
 

.´
They also produce torque which is nown as the ³„ "
# 

´. The Loced Rotor Torque (LRT) and the
Loced Rotor Current (LRC) are a function of the terminal
voltage of the motor and the motor design. As the motor
accelerates, both the torque and the current will tend to
adjust with rotor speed if the voltage is maintained constant.
The LRC of a motor can range from 500% of „ 2


 (VLC) to as high as 1400% of VLC. Typically, good
motors fall in the range of 550% to 750% of VLC.
The LRT of an induction motor can vary from as low as 60%
of VLT to as high as 350% of VLT. The breadown torque
can be as high as 350% of VLT. Typically, LRT for medium to
0üŒ
large motors are in the order of 120% of VLT to 280% of VLT.
 Current versus time Torque versus speed

0üÑ
0ü