POWER QUALITY

First Semester Course for

M M.E (Electrical Power)
Batch-2018 (2 C.H)
U
E Nadeem Ahmed

T Assistant Professor
Department Of Electrical Engineering
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 Course Aims & Objectives

M   Aims

U  To provide adequate knowledge and develop expertise for the analysis,

monitoring and control of power quality problems.

E  Objectives

T   Upon successful Completion of this course the student will be able to:

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  Understand the issues concerning the power quality such as; harmonics, voltage
sags, notches, swellings, surges, transients, voltage regulation &  frequency
regulation.
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  familiar with power quality measuring devices
Electrical   Describe Various Equipment used for Power Monitoring.
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 Contents
 Power Quality Concepts
 Power quality evaluation Procedure, General classes of power quality problems, Transients, Long-

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Duration Voltage Variations, Short-Duration Voltage Variations, Voltage Imbalance,Waveform
Distortion,Voltage Fluctuation, Power Frequency Variations, Power Quality Terms
 Voltage Sags and Interruptions

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 Sources of Sags and Interruptions, Estimating Voltage Sag Performance, Fundamental Principles of
Protection, Solutions at the End-User Level, Evaluating the Economics of Different Ride-Through
Alternatives, Motor-Starting Sags, Utility System Fault-Clearing Issues

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 Harmonics
 Harmonic Distortion, Voltage versus Current Distortion, Harmonics versus, Transients, Harmonic
Indexes, Harmonic Sources from Commercial Loads, Harmonic Sources from Industrial Loads,
Locating Harmonic Sources, System Response Characteristics, Adverse effects of Harmonic

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Distortion, Inter harmonics, Harmonic Distortion Evaluations, Principles for Controlling Harmonics,
Harmonic Studies, Devices for Controlling Harmonic Distortion, Standards of Harmonics.
 Power Quality Monitoring
JAMSHORO  Monitoring Considerations, Historical Perspective of Power Quality Measuring Instruments
 Power Quality Measurement Equipment, Assessment of Power Quality Measurement Data, Power
Quality Monitoring Standards
 Cost of Poor Power Quality
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 Exploring power quality cost, Studies on cost of poor power quality, power quality solutions
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 Who’s Problem Is It?

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 Power Quality Factoids

M $50 billion per year in the USA is lost as a result of power quality
breakdown.

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SOURCE: EPRI, 2000

Half of all computer problems and one-third of all data loss can be

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traced back to the power line.
SOURCE: Contingency Planning Research, LAN Times

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Sandia National Laboratories estimates power quality and reliability
problems cost US businesses approx. $150 billion annually in lost
data, materials and productivity—60% are sags
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In 1999, the amount lost as a result of power quality in the US was

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five times the amount spent on power quality worldwide
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 M …The data center houses 45,000 square-feet of computer floor space.
In one database, the company has consolidated $1.6 trillion of life

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insurance information.
Energy Decisions, June 2001

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During power supply shortages, utilities are generally permitted to
have line voltage reductions, so-called “brown outs,” to cope with
seasonal power demands…But if equipment is already operating on
T the low end of nominal voltage then the brown-out may cause
excessive heat dissipation in motors and electronic equipment.
JAMSHORO Building Operation and Management, May 2000

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 Costly Downtime!

M Industry Avg cost of downtime ($/hr)

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Brokerage $6,450,000
Credit Card $2,600,000
Pay Per View $150,000
E Home Shopping
Catalog Sales
$113,000
$90,000

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Airline Reservations $90,000
Tele-Ticket $69,000
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Package Shipping $28,000
ATM Fees $14,400

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 Definition of power quality

M  Definition of power quality given in the

IEEE dictionary : Power quality is the
U concept of powering and grounding
E sensitive equipment in a matter that is
suitable to the operation of that
T equipment.
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 What is Power Quality ?

M  Ideally, the electrical supply within a power

distribution network is a pure sinusoidal voltage
U waveform of constant magnitude and frequency.
The degree to which the electrical power supply
E deviates from this ideal indicates the quality of the
T power system.
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 Definition given in IEC project
group on power quality.
M  Set of parameters defining the properties
of the power supply as delivered to the
U users in normal operating conditions in
E terms of continuity of supply and
characteristics of voltage ( symmetry,
T frequency,magnitude,waveform)
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 Importance of Power Quality

M  If the power quality of the system is high, then any

load connected to it will operate satisfactory and
U efficiently. But if the power quality of the network
is low, then loads connected to it will not work
E satisfactory and efficiently.
T  If electrical equipment operates correctly and
reliable without being damaged or stressed, we
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would say that the electrical power is of good

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 Importance of Power Quality (Cont)

M  On the other hand , if the electrical equipment

malfunctions, is unreliable , or is damaged during
U normal usage , we would say that the power
quality is poor.
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 Importance of Power Quality (Cont)
 Example:

M  A standard 100-watt light bulb requires 120 volts

to produce the designed light output If the
U voltage drops to 108 volts (-10%), the light bulb
still works but will give less light output. If the
E voltage is removed as during a power outage, the
T light goes out. Either a low voltage or complete
power outage does not damage the light bulb.  If
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however the voltage rises to 130 volts (+10%),
the light bulb will produce more lumens than it
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was intended to, causing overheating and stress to
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the filament wire. The bulb will fail much sooner
than its expected design life; therefore, 18
 Example No. 2.Example No. 2. A CRT or monitor for a personal computer uses a

M 120 volt AC power supply to convert the incoming voltage to specific DC

voltages required to run the monitor, these voltages include 5 VDC for logic

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circuits and high voltage DC to operate the cathode ray tube (CRT). If the
incoming voltage drops to 108 volts (-10%), the power supply is designed to draw
more current or amps to maintain the proper internal voltages needed to operate

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the monitor. As a result of the higher current draw, the power supply runs hotter
and internal components are stressed more. Although the operator of the monitor
does not notice a problem, the long term effect of running on low voltage is

T reduced reliability and increased failures of the monitor. If the power drops below
the operating range of the power supply, the monitor will shut down. If the
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regulate the internal voltages and internal components will be damaged from high
voltage; therefore, we conclude that the power quality requirements for the PC
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of cause premature failures. The economic issues are much greater for the PC
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 Importance of Power Quality (Cont)
 we could conclude that as far as a standard light
M bulb is concerned, a power quality issue that
shortens bulb life is high voltage. We could also
U conclude that low voltage or a power outage would
cause the lumen output to vary, which effects the
E intended use of the bulb.

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 Interests in power quality

M  Equipment has become more sensitive to

voltage disturbances.
U Equipment causes voltage disturbances.
E A growing need for standardization and
T performance criteria.

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 The power supply has become too good.
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The power quality can be measured.
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 The Role of Standards
 There is active interest in this country as well as the rest of the world to establish power
quality standards to deal with these problems. The international standards development

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organization is the IEC. The IEC has defined a category of standards called
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Standards that deal with power quality issues.
They fall into the following six categories:

U 1. General. These provide definitions, terminology, etc. (IEC 1000-1-x)


 2. Environment. Characteristics of the environment where equipment will be applied
(1000-2-x).

E  3. Limits. Emission limits define the allowable levels of disturbances that can be
caused by equipment connected to the power system. These standards were formerly

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the IEC 555 series but now are numbered 1000-3-x. For instance, IEC 555-2 has now
become IEC 1000-3-2.
 4. Testing and Measurement Techniques. These provide detailed guidelines for
measurement equipment and test procedures to assure compliance with the other parts
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of the standards (1000-4-x).
 5. Installation and Mitigation Guidelines. These are designed to provide guidance in
application of equipment, such as filters, power conditioning equipment, surge
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 6. Generic and Product Standards. These will define immunity levels required for
Engineering equipment in general categories or for specific types of equipment (1000-6-x).

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 Loads and Power Quality
 There are two main types of loads within the
M power distribution network :
Linear load and Non-linear load , and each type
U has a different effect on the power quality within
E the network.

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 Loads and Power Quality (Cont)
 Linear Load
M In a linear circuit, the output response is
directly proportional to the input. In an
U AC circuit, that means that the application
E of a sinusoidal voltage results in a
sinusoidal current
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 Loads and Power Quality (Cont)
 Typical examples of linear loads in homes are

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resistive heating elements. The voltage and
current waveform in a circuit with a linear
U resistive loads are in phase with one another.

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 Loads and Power Quality (Cont)
 Non-Linear Load

M For non-linear loads, in sinusoidal ac circuits,

the current waveform is not sinusoidal. This is
U usually because these loads contain electronic
devices that do not conduct current over the full
E cycle of the applied voltage

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c u rre n t (a m p e re )
v o lt a g e s ( v o lt)

t h r e e -p h a s e s u p p ly v o lt a g e s t h r e e --p h a s e lo a d c u r r e n ts
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1 .5 0 1 .5 1 1 .5 2 1 .5 3 1 .5 4 1 .5 5 1 .5 6 1 .5 0 1 .5 1 1 .5 2 1 .5 3 1 .5 4 1 .5 5 1 .5 6
tim e ( s e c o n d ) tim e ( s e c o n d )

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 Power Quality Disturbances? (Cont)

M 

1.
2.
Wave distortion
Transients
U  3. Interruptions

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 4. Sag/Under voltage
 5. Swell/Over voltages

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
6.
7.
Voltage fluctuations
Frequency variations
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 Harmonics-What are they ?
Defined as “a wave whose frequency is an integer multiple
of the fundamental frequency.”

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U +
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T Fundamental Sine Wave 5th Harmonic with
Frequency = 5 times fundamental frequency
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Combination of the above two waveforms results in a distorted sine wave 4

 Utility generates Sinusoidal
Voltage & Current Linear
loads such as motors &
heaters etc draw Sinusoidal
M current from the Utility
When load is Linear both
U applied V & I are Sinusoidal
and no Harmonics are
E present

T Non Linear loads (VFD’s,

Computers etc) draw current
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in short bursts.
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Current is no longer Sinusoidal
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which contains a variety of
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 Harmonic Frequency
 Harmonic Freq.(Hz) = Harmonic order (x) Fundamental (50 Hz)
 5th Harmonic = 5 x 50 Hz = 250 Hz

 7th Harmonic = 7 x 50 Hz = 350 Hz

M  11th Harmonic = 11 x 50 Hz = 550 Hz

U Harmonic
n= kp ± 1
Order
E n= harmonic order


k= an integer
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

p= no. of pulses of converter



Example 1: 6 pulse converter

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

 n= 6k ± 1, n= 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, etc.

 Example 2: 18 pulse converter
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 n= 18k ± 1, n= 17, 19, 35, 37, 53, 55, etc
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 Types of Harmonics
Odd Harmonics

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Odd harmonics have frequencies that are odd
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
U For example, If a certain wave has fundamental of
50Hz, the third harmonic is 3*50=150Hz
E 500

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400 Fundamental
300 Resultant wave
200
3rd harmonic
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0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
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 Even Harmonics
Even harmonics have frequencies that are even

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multiples of the fundamental frequency. For example, if a
certain wave has a fundamental of 50Hz, the second

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harmonic is 2 *50 =100 Hz.
800

E Resultant wave
600

400 Fundamental

T 200

0
2nd harmonic

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0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02 40
 Only one phase current is presented for the
clearness
The significant harmonic currents are generated by the diode

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rectifier are 5th ,7th , 11th, and 13th order. The most dominant
harmonic current generated by the load is the 5th order

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harmonic.

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 Harmonic Sources
 Harmonics currents are caused by AC to DC power supply that provide power
to equipment such as :

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
Personal Computers ·
Copy Machines ·

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 Electronic Dimmers ·
 FAX Machines ·

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 File Servers ·
 Laser Printers ·
 Telecommunication Equipment ·

T Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS) ·



 Video Display Units ·

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 Audio and Video Recorders ·
 Battery Chargers ·
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 Harmonic Problems
 There are many problems that can arise from harmonic currents flowing in a

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power system. Some are easy to detect. Other problems may exist and persist
because harmonics are not suspected as the cause. Harmonic currents cause
higher RMS current and voltage in the system. This can result in any of the

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problems listed below:
 Capacitor failures
 Circuit breakers tripping

E Conductor failures


 Electronic equipment shutting down

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 Fuses blowing for no apparent reason
 Motor failures
 Phone problems
JAMSHORO  Transformer failures
 Computers locking up
 Data loss or corruption
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 Cause utility billing meters to register more energy than is used.
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 Harmonic Remedial Methods (cont)
The following are harmonic solutions that are commercially available
products or combinations of products for reducing harmonic currents

M and minimizing harmonic voltage distortion on a power system

 12-pulse converter front end

U In this configuration, the front end of the bridge rectifier circuit uses
twelve diodes instead of six. The advantages are the elimination of the

E 5th and 7th harmonics to a higher order where the 11th and 13th
become the predominate harmonics. This will minimize the magnitude

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of harmonics, but will not eliminate them. The disadvantages are cost
and construction, which also requires either a delta-delta and delta wye
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 Harmonic Remedial Methods
Isolation transformer

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An isolation transformer provides a good solution in many cases. The
advantage is the potential to “voltage match” by stepping up or stepping
down the system voltage, and by providing a neutral ground reference for

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nuisance ground faults. This is the best solution when utilizing AC or DC
drives that use SCR as bridge rectifiers.
 Line Reactors

E More commonly used for size and cost, the line reactor is the best solution
for harmonic reduction when compared to an isolation transformer. AC

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drives that use diodes bridge rectifier front ends are best suited for line
reactors.
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 Harmonic currents can produce a number
of problems:
 Equipment heating
M  Equipment malfunction

U  Equipment failure

E  Communications interference

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 Fuse and breaker mis-operation

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 Process problems
 Conductor heating.
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 Types of equipment that generate harmonics

M  Harmonic load currents are generated by all non-linear

loads. These include:

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
For Single phase loads, e.g.
Switched mode power supplies (SMPS)
E  Electronic fluorescent lighting ballasts

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 Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)
 Small uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) units
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 For Three phase loads, e.g.
 Variable speed drives
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 Large UPS units
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 Problems caused by harmonics
Problems caused by harmonic currents:
 overloading of neutrals

M  overheating of transformers

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 nuisance tripping of circuit breakers
 over-stressing of power factor correction capacitors

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 skin effect

Problems caused by harmonic voltages:

T  voltage distortion
 induction motors
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 zero-crossing noise
 Problems caused when harmonic currents reach the supply
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 Transients
 The transient is the most damaging type of power
disturbance. It can be defined as a circuit’s temporary
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response that will die out with the time.
Transients fall into two subcategories:
U 1. Impulse

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2. Oscillatory

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 Sources of Transients 
 The simple act of turning on (or off) a light, motor, copy
machine or any other electrical device can disturb the
M electrical circuit and create transients.

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 In general, the larger the load current the greater the
disturbance when the load is switched off or on. The

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switching of high loads such as electric welders and
electric motors are known to create transients.
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 Interruptions

M An interruption is defined as the complete loss of supply

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voltage or load current. Depending on its duration, an

U interruption is categorized as instantaneous, momentary,

temporary and Sustained. Duration range for interruption

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types are as follows:
 Instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles

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
Momentary 30 cycles to 2 seconds
Temporary 2 seconds to 2 minutes
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 Sustained greater than 2 minutes
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 Interruptions (cont)
 The causes of interruptions can vary, but are usually the
result of some type of electrical supply grid damage,

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such as lightning strikes, animals, trees, vehicle
accidents, destructive weather (high winds, heavy snow

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or ice on lines, etc.), equipment failure, or a basic circuit
breaker tripping.

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 But in Pakistan Electricity goes off for hours at a time
and its main cause is …………….

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 Interruptions (cont)

M  An interruption, whether it is instantaneous, momentary,

temporary, or sustained, can cause disruption, damage, and

U downtime, from the home user up to the industrial user. A

home, or small business computer user, could lose

E valuable data when information is corrupted from loss of

power to their equipment.

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 Voltage Sag (Dip)

M  It is a short duration disturbance . During voltage sag, r.

m. s. voltage falls to a very low level for short period of

U time. Typical duration is 0.5 cycles-1 minute and typical

voltage magnitude is 0.1–0.9 pu.

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 Voltage Sag (Dip)

M  Similarly, the starting of large motors inside an industrial

facility can result in significant voltage drop (sag). A motor

U can draw six times its normal running current, or more,

while starting. Creating a large and sudden electrical load

E such as this will likely cause a significant voltage drop to

the rest of the circuit it resides on. If you could imagine

T someone turning on all the water in your house while you’re

in the shower. Then you will get low pressure of water.
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 Voltage swell

M  it is a short duration disturbance. During voltage swell,

r. m. s. voltage increases to a very high level for short

U period of time. Typical duration is 0.5 cycles-1 minute

and typical voltage magnitude is 1.1–1.2 pu.

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For swells, sudden (especially large) load reductions, and a

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of single-phase fault on a three-phase system are common
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 Under voltages

M  Under voltages are the result of long-term problems that

create sags. Typical duration is > 1 minute and typical

U voltage magnitude less than 90% of the rated voltage.

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Undervoltages can create overheating in motors, and can
lead to the failure of nonlinear loads such as computer power
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 Over voltages

M  Over voltages can be the result of long-term problems that

create swells. Typical duration is > 1 minute and typical

U voltage magnitude is greater than 110% of the rated

voltage.

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JAMSHORO Overvoltages are usually the result of load switching (e.g.,
switching off a large load or energizing a capacitor bank).
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 Voltage Fluctuations

M  Voltage fluctuations can be described as repetitive

variations of the voltage.

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The foremost effect of voltage fluctuations is lamp flicker.

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Lamp flicker occurs when the intensity of the light from a
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lamp varies due to changes in the magnitude of the supply
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 Frequency Variation
M  A frequency variation involves a change in frequency of
more than 3Hz from the normally stable utility frequency

U of 50Hz. frequency variation is more common especially if

the generator is heavily loaded. For sensitive electronic

E equipment, the result can be data corruption, hard drive

crash, keyboard lockup and program failure

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75
 M  Ferroresonance or nonlinear resonance is a
type of resonance in electric circuits which
U occurs when a circuit containing a nonlinear 
inductance is fed from a source that has series 
E capacitance, and the circuit is subjected to a
T disturbance such as opening of a switch.[1] It can
cause over voltages and over currents in an
JAMSHORO
electrical power system and can pose a risk to 
transmission and distribution equipment and to
Department
of
Electrical
operational personnel.[
Engineering

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