Localization and

Plasticity
1.3
 Localization of Brain Function
• Localization of function is the theory that specific parts of the brain
are responsible for specific behaviours or cognitive processes.
• The case study of HM is a good example of how a specific part of the
brain has a specific function – that is, the hippocampus is responsible
for transferring short-term memory to long-term memory. 
•  Although we know that some parts of the brain do play specific roles
in behaviour, rarely does a part of the brain work in complete
isolation.
For example…….
• …………….in memory research, we argue that the cognitive process is
the result of distributive processing rather than localization of
function – in other words, several parts of the brain have to work
together in order to help us create and retrieve memories.
• Today researchers continue to attempt to map the brain.
•   One of the ways that they are doing this is by looking at the neural
connections in the brain and creating a map called a connectome.  
ATL: Inquiry
• Star Trek episodes used to begin with the line, “Space – the final
frontier!”  But perhaps there is a frontier much closer to home – the
human brain.  One of the great challenges of the 21st century is to
create a map of the brain that identifies the neural pathways of the
brain and how they interact.
• Go to the website for the “Human Connectome Project.”
[www.humanconnectome.org]  
• What do the researchers hope that this project will achieve?  Why
might this project be as “exciting” as the website claims?
The Brain
• brain stem, the cerebellum, the cerebrum, and the limbic system.
• The brain stem is not usually studied by psychologists.  The brain stem
is responsible for regulating life functions, such as breathing, heart
rate and blood pressure. The cerebellum plays a key role in balance
and motor function, including speech production.  It also plays a role
in learning – specifically, in classically conditioned responses.
• The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated
with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebrum
is divided into four sections, called lobes. 
Core Structures
• Each of these lobes plays a key role in behaviour:
• The Frontal Lobe is associated with executive functions – that is,
planning, decision making and speech.

• The Occipital Lobe is associated with visual processing.

• The Parietal Lobe is associated with perception of stimuli;
• The Temporal Lobe is associated with auditory processing and memory.
 Plays a role in the formation of emotional memory
Amygdala
and fear responses.

Basal ganglia Plays a role in habit-forming and procedural memory.

Hippocampus Responsible for transfer of short-term memory to

long-term memory

Involved in homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger,

circadian rhythms and control of the autonomic
Hypothalamus
nervous system. In addition, it controls the pituitary
gland.

Nucleus accumbens Plays a role in addiction and motivation.

• In the previous section, we looked at the case study of HM. 
• Researchers were able to determine through their long-term study of
HM that the hippocampus plays a key role in the transfer of
information from short-term memory to long-term memory. A review
of the study can be seen in the following video.
• But as you can see, there the answer to the question of how memory
works was not complete from the study of HM.  Other studies have
shown us more about how memory works, including the case study of
Eugene Pauly.
The case of Eugene Pauly
• In 1992 Larry Squire and his
team were introduced to
one of the most interesting
cases of amnesia since the
famous HM study.
• At the age of 70, Eugene
Pauly was diagnosed with
viral encephalitis. Both his
amygdala and hippocampus
were completely
destroyed. 
• He demonstrated many of
the same symptoms as HM.
The case of Eugene Pauly
• Squire carried out a series of interviews with EP at his home. During
one interview he asked EP to draw a map of his home.  He was not
able to do it.
• However, EP excused himself and got up to go to the toilet.
• How could a man that could not draw a map of his home find the
bathroom on his own?
• Several tasks which we do which rely on procedural memories make
this transition from involving an active frontal lobe to simply an active
basal ganglia.
• Although the actual process is complex and not fully understood,
when we are learning to do a task it is often cognitive in nature.
• So, when I first learn to drive a car, I need to think an awful lot about
what I am doing. But remember, thinking takes up a lot of energy. 
• Our brains have adapted in a way that minimizes the amount of
energy that it needs to expend. 
• Over time, the task is no longer cognitive, but what is referred to as
an associative task. But chunking together a series of movements or
behaviours, the task becomes automatic. 
• The more common word we use for associative tasks is "habits."
• EP was also able to take a walk around the block by himself.
• His wife would even follow him around the block to make sure that he
was ok, but he was able to find his way home without any problems.
• When he was asked from any point on his walk where he lived, he
would say he didn't know, but since the task was associative - or a
habit - he was able to simply walk home.
• However, occasionally there was a problem.  If the sidewalk was being
repaired and he had to leave his familiar path, EP would get lost. 
• Returning to our example of driving a car - even when we drive a long
time, bad weather or heavy traffic forces us to concentrate more. The
task reverts from associative to cognitive. 
• When this happened to EP, he did not have the capacity to solve the
problem as his memory was only procedural.
• Once the familiar pattern was changed, he was unable to complete
the task.
• In this case study, Squire & his team carried out several different
research methods including interviews with EP and his family,
psychometric testing (IQ testing), and observational studies
• .  In addition, MRIs were used to determine the extent of the damage
to EP's brain.
• MRI indicated that EP's basal ganglia were undamaged.  It is believed
that the basal ganglia are responsible for this type of procedural
memory.
Brain Plasticity
Brain Plasticity
• The brain is a dynamic system that interacts with the environment. In
a sense, the brain is physically sculpted by experience.
• Not only can the brain determine and change behaviour, but
behaviour and environment can change the brain.
• Modern researchers argue that the brain is constantly changing as a
result of experience throughout the lifespan.

• Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to its own structure following

changes within the body or in the external environment.x
• Brain plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to rearrange the
connections between its neurons - that is, the changes that occur in
the structure of the brain as a result of learning or experience.
• High levels of stimulation and numerous learning opportunities lead
to an increase in the density of neural connections.
• This means that the brain of an expert musician should have a thicker
area in the cortex related to mastery of music, when compared to the
brain of a non-musician.
• The same can be said about students who spend a lot of time
studying, compared to students who do not.
• Every time we learn something new, the neurons connect to create a
new trace in the brain.
• This is called dendritic branching because the dendrites of the
neurons grow in numbers and connect with other neurons
 Rosenzweig, Bennett and Diamond (1972). 

• The researchers conducted experiments where they placed rats into

one of two environments to measure the effect of either enrichment
or deprivation on the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex.
• In the enriched environment, rats were placed in cages with up to 11
other rats.
• In addition, there were stimulus objects for the rats to play with, as
well as maze training.  In the deprived environment, the rat was
alone with no stimulation.
• The rats spent 30 or 60 days in their respective environments and
then they were killed in order to measure the effect of the
environment on their brain structures.
• Post-mortem studies of their brains showed that those that had been
in the stimulating environment had an increased thickness in the
cortex as a result of increased dendritic branching compared to the
rats in the deprived environment.
• The frontal lobe, which in humans is associated with thinking,
planning, and decision making, was heavier in the rats that had been
in the stimulating environment.
• The combination of having company and many interesting toys
created the best conditions for developing cerebral thickness.
• This raises the question of the importance of stimulation and
education in the growth of new synapses. If learning always results in
an increase of dendritic branching, then the findings from animal
studies that show increased dendritic branching in response to
environmental stimulation are important for the human cortex as well.
• This was seen in a key study done by Maguire et al (2000). 
Unfortunately, environmental stressors can also have a negative effect
on brain structures.  Carrion et al (2009) found that children who had
been abused tend to show a smaller hippocampus than their same-
age peers.
Maguire et al (2000)
• The aim of the study was to see whether the brains of London taxi
drivers would be somehow different as a result of the exceptional
training that they have to do to be certified. All potential taxi drivers
must learn “the Knowledge” – that is, they must form a mental map
of the city of London.
• The participants for this quasi-experiment were 16 right-handed male
London taxi drivers.
• The brain of the taxi drivers were MRI scanned and compared with
the MRI scans of 50 right-handed males who did not drive taxis (the
control group).
• In order to take part in the study, the participants had to have
completed the "Knowledge" test and have their license for at least 1.5
years. The controls were taken from an MRI database.
• The sample included a range of ages so that age would not be a
confounding variable.
• The study is correlational as the IV was not manipulated by the
researcher but naturally occurring. The researchers were looking to
see if there was a relationship between the number of years of
driving a taxi and the anatomy of one's brain. It was also a single-
blind study - that is, the researcher did not know whether she was
looking at the scan of a taxi driver or a control.
Findings
• There were two key findings of the study.
• First, the posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers were significantly larger
relative to those of control subjects and the anterior hippocampi were
significantly smaller.
•   Secondly, the volume of the right posterior hippocampicorrelated
with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver. No differences were
observed in other parts of the brain. Maguire argues that this
demonstrates that the hippocampus may change in response to
environmental demands.
Link between Localization and
Plasticity
• Studies from both abnormal and developmental psychology have
demonstrated, for example, the way that stress has an effect on
memory by interfering with the work of the hippocampus. 
• In addition, long-term stress appears to lead to hippocampal atrophy -
that is, hippocampal cell death that leads to a smaller hippocampus. 
• This was found in a study by Bremner (2003).
Bremner (2003).
• Thirty-three women participated in this study, including women with
early childhood sexual abuse and PTSD (N=10), women with abuse
without PTSD (N=12), and women without abuse or PTSD (N=11).
• The researchers used an MRI to measure the volume of the
hippocampus in all of the participants - and a PET scan to measure its
level of function during a verbal declarative memory test. 
• Women that were abused and showed symptoms of PTSD were foud
to have 16% smaller volume of the hippocampus compared to women
with abuse without PTSD.
• In addition, these women showed a lack of activity in the
hippocampus when carrying out the memory task. 
• Women with abuse and PTSD had a 19% smaller hippocampal volume
relative to women without abuse or PTSD.
Exam Prep
• When discussing localization of brain function and neuroplasticity,
there are several other examples throughout the course which you may
choose to use.  Here are some examples.
• Localization of function:  the case of HM and the hippocampus
• Localization of function: the case of Eugene Pauly and the basal ganglia
• Localization of function:  the role of the amygdala in flashbulb memory.
• Localization of function: the role of the ventromedial prefrontal
cortex in decision making