Dr.

Abhilasha
 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

 Understand the importance of sampling

 Differentiate between non-probability and probability sampling
 Understand the concept of sampling and non-sampling errors
 Understand the concept of sampling distribution and the
application of central limit theorem
 Understand sampling distribution of sample proportion
Sampling

A researcher generally takes a small portion of the population for

study, which is referred to as sample. The process of selecting a
sample from the population is called sampling.
 Sampling

Sampling is a key component of any research design.

Sampling design involves several basic questions:
Should a sample be taken?
If so, what process should be followed?
What kind of sample should be taken?
How large should it be?
What can be done to control and adjust for non-
response errors?.
Basic Terminologies
Population: The aggregate of all the elements that
share some common set of characteristics and that
comprise the universe for the purpose of the research
problem.

Census: A complete enumeration of the elements of a

population.

Sample: A subgroup of the elements of the population

selected for participation in the study.
Census versus Sample
Why Is Sampling Essential?
 Sampling saves time.
 Sampling saves money.
 When the research process is destructive in nature, sampling
minimizes the destruction.
 Sampling broadens the scope of the study in light of the
scarcity of resources.
 It has been noticed that sampling provides more accurate
results, as compared to census because in sampling, non-
sampling errors can be controlled more easily.
 In most cases complete census is not possible and, hence,
sampling is the only option left.
Sampling Design Process
Define the Target Population
Element: An object about which or from which the
information is desired. e.g. Respondent
Sampling Unit: An element, or a unit containing the
element, that is available for selection at some stage
of the sampling process.
Extent: Refers to the geographical boundaries of the
research.
Time: Refers to the period under consideration
Defining the target population may
not be easy sometimes
Consider a marketing research project assessing
consumer response to a new brand of men’s
moisturizer.
Who should be included in the target population? All
men?
Men who have used a moisturiser during the last
month?
Men of 17 years of age or older?
Should females be included, because some women buy
moisturiser for men whom they know?
Determine the Sampling Frame
• A representation of the elements of the target population that
consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target
population.

• A researcher takes a sample from a population list, directory,

map, city directory, or any other source used to represent the
population. This list possesses the information about the
subjects and is called the sampling frame.

• Sampling is carried out from the sampling frame and not from
the target population.
Determine the Sampling Technique

Appropriate sampling technique must be selected

 In sampling with replacement, an element is selected from the frame,

required information is obtained, and then the element is placed back in
the frame. This way, there is a possibility of the element being selected
again in the sample.

 As compared to this, in sampling without replacement, an element is

selected from the frame and not replaced in the frame. This way, the
possibility of further inclusion of the element in the sample is
eliminated.
Determine the Sample Size
Sample Size: The number of elements to be included in a
study
Important qualitative factors to be considered in
determining the sample size include
 the importance of the decision
 the nature of the research
 the number of variables
 the nature of the analysis
 sample sizes used in similar studies
 incidence rates,
 completion rates
 resource constraints
Classification of Sampling Techniques
Non-Probability Sampling
Sampling techniques that do not use chance
selection procedures but rather rely on the
personal judgement of the researcher.

Probability Sampling
A sampling procedure in which each element of the
population has a fixed probabilistic chance of being
selected for the sample.
 Probability Sampling Methods

 Simple Random Sampling

 In simple random sampling, each member of the
population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.
 Probability Sampling Methods
 Stratified Random Sampling
 In stratified random sampling, elements in the population
are divided into homogeneous groups called strata.

 Then, researchers use the simple random sampling

method to select a sample from each of the strata. Each
group is called stratum.

 In stratified random sampling, stratum should be

relatively homogenous and the strata should contrast
with each other.
Probability Sampling Methods contd…

Stratified random sampling based on

educational levels
 Probability Sampling Methods contd…
 Cluster (or Area) Sampling
 In cluster sampling, we divide the population into non-
overlapping areas or clusters.
 In stratified sampling, strata happen to be homogenous but in
cluster sampling, clusters are internally heterogeneous.
 A cluster contains a wide range of elements and is a good
representative of the population.

Diagram for cluster sampling

Systematic (or Quasi-random) Sampling
 In systematic sampling, sample elements are selected from
the population at uniform intervals in terms of time, order, or
space.
 A researcher wants to take a sample of size 30 from a
population of size 900 and he has decided to use systematic
sampling for this purpose.

 For obtaining the sample, the first member can be selected

randomly and after that every 30th member of the population is
included in the sample. Suppose the first element 3 is selected
randomly and after this, every 30th element, that is, 33rd, 63rd,
… element up to a sample size of 30 are included in the sample.
 Multi-Stage Sampling
 As the name indicates, multistage sampling involves the
selection of units in more than one stage.

Multi-stage (four stages) sampling

 Non-Probability Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 In quota sampling, certain subclasses, such as age,
gender, income group, and education level are used
as strata.
 Then a non-random sampling methods to gather
data from one stratum until the required quota fixed
by the researcher is fulfilled.
 Convenience Sampling
In convenience sampling, sample elements are selected
based on the convenience of a researcher.

Limitations:
Samples are not representative of any definable
population.
Generalization is not possible.
Not recommended for descriptive and causal research.
can be used in exploratory research for generating
ideas, insights or hypotheses.
can be used for pre-testing questionnaires, or pilot
studies
 Judgement Sampling
In judgement sampling, selection of the sampling units is based on
the judgement of a researcher.

Common examples:
 test markets selected to determine the potential of a new product,
 purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research
because they are considered to be representative of the company,
 product testing with individuals who may be particularly fussy or
who hold extremely high expectations,
 expert witnesses used in court, and
 supermarkets selected to test a new merchandising display system
 Non-Probability Sampling (Contd.)
 Advantages of Judgement Sampling
 Inexpensive, convenient and quick
 can be useful if broad population inferences are
not required

 Disadvantages of Judgement Sampling

 does not allow direct generalizations to a specific
population
 subjective and its value depends entirely on the
researcher’s judgement, expertise and creativity
 Non-Probability Sampling (Contd.)
 Snowball Sampling
 In snowball sampling, survey respondents
are selected on the basis of referrals from
other survey respondents.
 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
Sampling Error
Sampling error occurs when the sample is not a true
representative of the population. In complete enumeration,
sampling errors are not present.
Sampling errors can occur due to some specific reasons:
 Faulty selection of the sample.
 Sometimes due to the difficulty in selection a particular
sampling unit, researchers try to substitute that sampling
unit with another sampling unit which is easy to be surveyed.
 Sometimes researchers demarcate sampling units wrongly
and hence, provide scope for committing sampling errors.
Sampling and Non-sampling Errors (Contd.)

Non-Sampling Errors
All errors other than sampling can be included in the category of
non-sampling errors.

The following are some common non-sampling errors:

 Faulty designing and planning of survey
 Response errors
 Non-response bias
 Errors in coverage
 Compiling error and publication error
Choosing non-probability versus probability
sampling
Strengths and weaknesses of sampling
techniques
Strengths and weaknesses of sampling
techniques
 Sampling Distribution
 Is a representation of the sample statistics values obtained
from every conceivable sample of a certain size, chosen from a
population by using a specified sampling procedure, along
with the relative frequency of those statistics values.

Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution prob.xls

Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution (normal).xls
 Central Limit Theorem
 A population has a mean μ and standard deviation σ. If a
sample of size n is drawn from the population for sufficiently
large sample size (n ≥ 30); the sample means are
approximately normally distributed regardless of the shape of
the population distribution. If the population is normally
distributed, the sample means are normally distributed, for
any size of the sample.
 In case where sample means are normally distributed, z
formula applied to sample mean will be

The revised version of the z formula can be presented as below:

 Example 1

The distribution of the annual earnings of the employees of a cement factory

is negatively skewed. This distribution has a mean of Rs 25,000 and standard
deviation of Rs 3000. If a researcher draws a random sample of size 50, what is
the probability that their average earnings will be more than Rs 26,000?
 Example 1 (Contd.)

Figure 5.10: Probability that the average Figure 5.11: Corresponding z scores
earnings of employees is more than Rs for probability of average earnings
26,000 more than Rs 26,000
 Use of Excel and SPSS

 Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Ex 5.1.xls

 Ch 5 Solved Examples\Minitab\Ex 5.1.MPJ

Case of Sampling from a Finite Population

Example 5.1 is based on the assumption that the population is

extremely large or infinite. In case of a finite population, a statistical
adjustment called finite correction factor can be incorporated into
the z formula for sample mean.

After applying this finite correction factor, the z formula becomes:

Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion

Figure 5.12 : Using sample proportion to make an inference about

the population proportion
Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion

Example 2

In a population of razor blades, 15% are defective. What is the

probability of randomly selecting 90 razor blades and finding 10 or
less defective?
 Example 2 (Solution)

Figure 5.13: The probability of randomly selecting 90 razor blades

and finding 10 or less defective
Example 5.2 (Solution)
Practice Question-

In a grocery store, the mean expenditure per

customer is Rs.2000 with a standard
deviation of Rs.300. If a random sample of 50
customers is selected, what is the probability
that the sample average expenditure per
customer is more than Rs.2080?