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Essentials of a Market
- Commodity which is dealt
- Existence of Buyer and seller
- a Place
- Communication(direct or indirect) between buyer and
seller that only one price should prevail.
Market:
Many buyer/sellers +
Identical Products
PERFECT COMPETITION
Definition of Perfect competition:
A market in which there are many small firms,
all producing homogeneous goods.
No single firm has influence on the price of the
product it sells.
Perfect Competition
Demand curve for the single firm will be infinite (perfectly elastic)
The maximum output an individual firm can produce is small.
Products are standardized commodities
Homogenous product
the substitutes are "perfect substitutes."
Sufficient knowledge
When customers know the prices offered by other
sellers, they will be better able to switch – increasing
elasticity further.
Perfect Competition
Free entry
companies may even enter the market to provide still
more substitutes
Example:
Agricultural products, Precious metals, Financial
instruments like shares, unskilled labours
ep = ∞
P D
Q
Imperfect Competition
Can be caused by
- Fewness of firms
- Product differentiation
Sub- categories
Monopoly
Monopolistic Competition
Pure Oligopoly
Differentiated Oligopoly
i) Monopoly
Existence of a single producer
Has no close substitutes P
Large control over prices P’ ep < 1
Market power : High
Long run economic profit : High
Q Q’
Kind of business
Govt. sanctioned regulated monopolies
Public utilities, Telephones, Electricity
The expansion and contraction of output will
have a effect on the prices of the product
i) Monopolistic Competition
P ep > 1
Large no of Firms
Relatively easy barrier P’ D
Product differentiation which are close substitutes
Start up capital is low Q Q’
Revenue P P=AR = MR
O output
AR and MR under No of Price TR MR
Imperfect competitionUnits Q (AR) P*Q
1 16 16 16
Demand curve is
2 15 30 14
downward sloping
Firm increases 3 14 42 12
production and sale of 4 13 52 10
its product, price starts
5 12 60 8
falling
AR starts falling 6 11 66 6
MR falls more rapidly 7 10 70 4
MR is +ve as long as 8 9 72 2
TR is increasing
9 8 72 0
MR is -ve when TR
starts declining 10 7 70 -2
AR and MR under
Imperfect competition
P
AR
O Q M MR
M
TR
AR and MR under Imperfect
competition
MR is zero TR is maximum
Equilibrium of the
Firm and Industry
under Perfect
Competition
Meaning and Condition of Perfect
Competition
*Large Number of Firms
- Individual firm exercises no control over the prices
- Output constitutes a very small fraction of total output
- Price taker and output adjuster
*Homogenous Product
- Perfect substitutes
- Cross elasticity is Infinite
*Free entry and Exit
- If firms are making super normal profit in short run, in long run
new firms will enter and compete away the profits
- If firms are making losses in the short run, some of the existing
firm will leave the industry in the long run and the firms left will
make normal profit.
*No governmental interference
* Profit Maximisation
Meaning and Condition of Perfect
Competition
O M
How much profit does the firm
earn in the short run?
Profit per unit of output = AR – AC
Equilibrium output of OM
Average Revenue = ME
Average Cost = MF
SAC
Profit per unit is EF
( AC- AR) Super Normal Profit SMC
Total profit is HFEP
Super normal profit in short run E
P
As normal profits are included in AR = MR
average cost H F
O M
b) Normal Profit
SMC
E
P
AR =-MR
H
O M
c) Losses
If the AR and MR curve lies below the AC curve
Firm would be making a loss since AR < AC
SAC
Loss is of PEFH
SMC
AVC
F
H
Losses AR =-MR
E
P
O M
PROFIT MAXIMIZATION IN LONG
EFFECT RUN
OF ENTRY Firms that earn supernormal profits
in the short run will only be able to
The economic profit attracts The price is determined by earn normal or zero profits in the
newcomers to the industry. As a the intersection of the long run due to entry of
result, many firms will enter the market supply curve and newcomers.
market and this will lead to an the market demand curve.
increase in supply. The competitive firm sells 60 kg of
chicken and earns an economic
Price (RM) Price (RM)
Supply curve will shift to the right profit shown by the shaded area.
and equilibrium market price will fall
to RM15.
MC
SS AC
SS1
20 20 PROFI P = MR = AR
15
T P1 = MR1 = AR1
DD
Quantity Quantity
Q* 60
Market Firm
PROFIT MAXIMIZATION IN LONG
The price is
RUN (cont.) EFFECT OF EXIT
The losses in short run forces
determined by the those sellers who cannot The competitive firm sells 60 kg of chicken and
intersection of the cover their AVC or TVC to suffers losses shown by the shaded area.
market supply curve leave the market. As many
and the market firms exit the market, this will
demand curve. Firms that suffer losses in the short
lead to a decrease in the run can still continue their operation
market supply. as in the long run they are able to
Price (RM)
Price (RM) earn normal or zero profits due to
Supply curve will shift to left and equilibrium exit of the firms.
market price will rise to RM15.
SS1 MC
AC
SS
15
15 P1 = MR1 = AR1
10 10
LOSSES
P = MR = AR
DD
Quantity Quantity
Q* 60
Market Firm
Will the firm decide to
shut down?
The firm cannot dispose of the fixed capital equipment in the short run
The firm has to incur losses equal to fixed cost
So if the firm shuts down it can avoid only variable cost
Therefore if the firm earn revenue which covers variable cost as well
as part of fixed cost, its quite rational for to be in business
F
H
AR =-MR
P
E
O M
ii) When AVC is below the Price
F
H
AR =-MR
E
P
A
B
O M
d) Shut Down
If the price falls below the AVC.
Then it makes losses greater than total fixed cost
It will be rational for the firm to close down SAC
As the firm is not able to recover even SMC
its variable cost AVC
F
H
AR =-MR
P
O M
Long Run
It is a period of time which is sufficient to allow firm to have a
change in all the factors of production.
Long run the market price will settle at the point where the firms
earn Normal profit.
Price that enable firm to earn above normal profit would induce
other firms to enter the market
Whereas prices below the normal level would cause firms to leave
the market.
LAC
P AR = MR
OUTPUT
Long run equilibrium is established at the minimum point of the long
run average cost curve.
Earlier the firm enters a market, the better the chance of earning
above normal profit.
3. Quantity demanded remains fixed to 2000 every 1 unit rise in the price
What does the supply equation say?
5. Quantity supplied increases by 150 every 1 unit rise in the price
7. Quantity supplied remains fixed to 1200 every 1 unit rise in the price
2. 3.1
3. 3.2
4. 3.3
What is the equilibrium quantity for the above scenario?
5. 1660
6. 1680
7. 1700
8. 1720
Equilibrium of the
Firm and Industry
under Monopoly
Meaning
1. Patent / Copyright
For a certain period of time, firm can attain a patent right on the new
product from the government.
AR
O
Q M MR
Monopoly Equilibrium and
Price Elasticity of Demand
Monopolist ability to set price is limited by the demand curve for its
product i.e the price elasticity of demand.
M TR
Price – Output Equilibrium
under Monopoly
Short Run
In Monopoly equilibrium
MR = MC
P > MC
Price – Output Equilibrium
under Monopoly
Q P TR TC AC MC MR Remarks Profit or
Loss
0 200 0 100 - - - -
1 200 200 250 250 150 200 MR > MC -50
2 180 360 350 175 100 160 MR > MC +10
3 160 480 420 140 70 120 MR > MC +60
4 140 560 500 125 80 80 MR = MC +60
5 120 600 600 120 100 40 MR < MC 0
6 100 600 720 120 120 0 MR < MC -80
7 80 560 870 120 150 -40 MR < MC -20
Price / Output Equilibrium
a) Super Normal Profits
Price / Output Equilibrium
b) Losses
Long Run Equilibrium under
Monopoly
In long run monopolist make adjustments to the plant size
In the Long run the equilibrium would be at the level of output where
given MR cuts the long run MC curve
MR = LMC = SMC
SAC = LAC
P > LAC
As the price cannot fall below LAC, in long run the monopolist will
quit the industry if it is not even able to make normal profits.
Long Run Equilibrium under
Monopoly
SMC
LMC LAC
P G SAC
F
H
AR
O
Q
MR
Difference
i.e
“ Sales of technically similar products at prices which are not
proportional to Marginal cost”.
Types
First Degree – Personal
When the monopolist is able to sell each separate unit of output at
different prices
When the seller divides his buyers into two or more than two sub-
market depending upon the price elasticity of demand
( A manufacture who sells his product at a higher price at home and at
a lower price abroad)
When is Price
Discrimination Possible?
If its not possible to transfer any unit of the product from one market to
another.
It should not be possible for the buyer in the dearer market to transfer
themselves into the cheaper market to buy the product at lower price.
Monopolist can divide his total market into several sub – market.
For example
Two market – Relatively Elastic and Relatively Inelastic
Higher price in relatively inelastic market, so profit margin high
Lower price relatively elastic market, so profit margin are low
So putting it together higher profits collectively by Price
discrimination
Managerial Decision Making in
Monopoly
Monopoly can earn economic profits in the short run or long run.
Monopolistic Competition
Introduction
The difference between the price and MR at equilibrium output is
regarded as the Degree of Imperfection
2.Product Differentiation
3. Selling Costs
4. Influence over Price/Independent decision making
A firm has to choose a price and output which maximises profits
5.Imperfect knowledge
6.Unrestricted entry and exit
7.Non Price Competition
Expenditure on Advertising and other selling cost
Non- Price Competition
The ability to differentiate their product in Imperfect competition with
the
variable other than price.
Advertising
Promotion
Location and distribution channels
Market segmentation
Loyalty program
Product extension / new product development
Special customer service
Product tie-ups
• Firms in a M.C. generally are too large to completely fail.
Instead they merge with other firms. There are 3 different
types of mergers:
1. Vertical Merger: firms looking to save on costs will
merge with a resource provide (example: McDonalds buys
a paper cup manufacture or a cattle ranch; Ford buys a
steel manufacture)
2. Horizontal Merger: firms in competing industries buy
each other in order to dominate one single industry
(example: McDonalds buys Wendys; Nissan buys Honda)
3. Conglomerate: firms in unrelated industries buy each
other in order to offer a diversified set of products
(example: Procter & Gamble who produces everything
from shampoo, to dog food, to coffee, to Duracell batteries)
Shape of MR and AR curve
Since close substitutes are available in the market, the demand
M
P
AR
O Q MR
Short Run Equilibrium
1) Super Normal Profits
2) Losses
Long Run Equilibrium
If the firm earn supernormal or economic profits in the short run, it
will lead to entry of new firms in the long run.
Which will cause a resultant shift in the demand curve to the left.
The firm would be making normal profits in the long run, but its price
would be higher and output smaller than under Perfect
Competition.
Long Run Equilibrium
Equilibrium of the Firm
and Industry under
OLIGOPOLY
Imperfect
Oligopoly
Introduction
Two kinds
Pure Oligopoly : Oligopoly without Product Differentiation
Differentiated Oligopoly: Oligopoly with Product Differentiation
Features / Characteristics
Few Sellers
Interdependence
Competitors are few, any change in price, output, product will have
a direct effect on competitors .
Group Behaviour
Do the few firms cooperate with each other in promotion of common
interest or do they fight to promote individual interest.
Economies of Scale
Few firms can fulfil the demand of the product by producing at large
scale and thus lowering the average cost of production.
Economies of Scope
Production of multi-products leads to lower average cost
Causes for the Oligopolies
Both
In some industries few firms dominate due to Economies of scale
But in some its get dominated due to policy of mergers and
takeovers
Cooperative Vs
Non Cooperative Behaviour
The behaviour of oligopolistic firm can be strategic in deciding about
their price and output policies.
The strategic behaviour means that the oligopolistic firms must take
into account the effect of their price- output decision on their firms
and on the reaction they expect from other firms.
A) Cartels
B) Price leadership
A) CARTELS
Firms jointly fix a price and output policy through agreements
Cartels usually occur where there are a small no. of sellers selling
homogenous products.
Now-a-days all types of formal or informal and tacit agreements are
made among oligopolisitic firms.
Formation of Cartels involves:
The total profits is distributed among the member firm already agreed
between them.
The total cost will be minimum when firms in cartel produces such
output so that their marginal cost is equal.
2) Output Quota:
Agreement between firms regarding quota of output and sold by
each of them at the agreed price.
As the cost of firms are different , the quotas will be fixed and
market share differ
Which are decided through bargaining between the firms.
Which is based on
Past – period sales
Productive capacity
Division of market share region wise
B) Price Leadership
One firm sets the price and other follows it.
The follower firm adopts the price of the leader, even though they
have to forgo from their profit maximising position.
If the leader fixes a higher price than the price preferred by followers,
the followers can make hidden price cuts in order to increase their
share.
The kink is formed at the price because the segment of the demand
curve above the price is highly elastic and the segment of the demand
curve below the price is inelastic
The possibility of price rigidity in oligopoly market
may exist due to the following reasons:
i) Maintenance of a specific price to prevent threat of
entry from the potential rivals.
ii) Buyers may become accustomed to a particular
product with a specified price. Hence, sellers may not
like to change the price.
iii) Charging of high price may engender resentment
among the buyers. Therefore firms may keep a
reasonable and acceptable price undisturbed.
iv) The oligopolist may avoid the upward revision of price
for the fear of state intervention.
v) The established price might have resulted from tough
bargaining and some formal agreement.
vi) Kinked DD Curve.
Pricing in a Oligopolistic Market
Kinked Demand Curve: Coined by P.M Sweezy
Each oligopolist believes that if he lowers the price below the prevailing
level, his competitor will follow him and will accordingly lower their
prices. Whereas if he raises the price, competition will not follow his
increase in the price.