Leveling

Importance of Leveling
• The determination of elevations, known as leveling, is a
comparatively simple but extremely important process.

• They are so important that one cannot imagine a

construction project in which they are not critical

• From terracing on a farm or the building of simple wall to

the construction of drainage projects or the largest
buildings and bridges.
Terms used in Leveling
• Leveling may be defined as the art of determining the relative heights or
elevations of points or objects on the earth’s surface. It deals with
measurements in a vertical plane.
• Definitions of Terms used in Leveling: -
– A level surface is any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the
earth, e.g. surface of a still lake. Since the earth is an oblate spheroid, a level
surface may be regarded as a curved surface, every point on which is
equidistant from the centre of the earth. It is normal to the plumb line at all
points.
– A level line is a line in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to the plumb
line at all points
– A horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface
at that point. It is perpendicular to the direction of gravity (plumb line).
– A horizontal line is any line lying in the horizontal plane. It is a straight line
tangential to a level line.
Terms used in Leveling
• A vertical line at any point is a line normal to the level surface through
that point, e.g. a plumb line.
• A vertical plane is a plane containing a vertical line.
• A vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical
plane. One of the two lines is commonly taken as horizontal in surveying.
• A datum surface or line is any arbitrarily assumed level surface or line
from which vertical distances are measured.
• The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below the
datum. It is also known as the reduced level (R.L). The elevation of a
point is plus or minus according as the point as above or below the
datum.
• The difference in elevation (H) between two points is the vertical
distance between the level surfaces passing through the two points.
• A bench mark (B.M) is a fixed reference point of known elevation.
Terms used in Leveling
• The line of collimation is the line joining the intersection of the
crosshairs to the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. It
is also called the line of sight.
• An axis of the telescope is a line joining the optical centre of the object
glass to the centre of the eye-piece.
• The vertical axis is the centre line of the axis of rotation.
• A backsight (B.S), also termed as a back sight reading, is a staff (or rod)
reading taken on a point of known elevation, as on a bench mark or a
change point. It is also called a plus sight. It is the first staff reading taken
after the level is set up and leveled.
• A foresight (F.S) also called a fore sight reading, is a staff (or rod) reading
on a point whose elevation is to be determined as on a change point. It is
also termed as a minus sight. It is the last staff reading denoting the
shifting of the instrument.
Terms used in Leveling
• An intermediate sight (I.S) is any other staff reading taken on a point of
unknown elevation from the same set-up of the level. All sights taken
between the backsight and the foresight are intermediate sights.
• A change point (C.P) is a point denoting the shifting of the level. It is a
point on which the fore and backsight are taken. Any stable and well-
defined object such as a boundary stone, curb stone, rail, rock, etc. is
used as a change point. A bench mark may also be taken as a change
point. It is also called a turning point (T.P).
• A station is a point whose elevation is to be determined or a point which
is to be established at a given elevation. It may be noted that it is a point
where the staff is held and not the point where the level is set up.
• The height of instrument (H.I) is the elevation (or the R.L) of the plane of
collimation (or plane of sight) when the instrument is correctly leveled. It
is also called the “height of plane of collimation” or the collimation.
Terms used in Leveling
• Focusing: - By focusing is meant the setting of the eye-piece and the
objective at the proper distance apart for the clear vision of the object
sighted.
• Parallax: - It is the apparent movement of the image relatively to the
cross-hairs when the image formed by the objective does not fall in the
plane of the diaphragm.
• Equipment for Leveling: - The equipment for leveling consists of (i) a
level, (ii) a leveling staff, (iii) a chain or tape for measuring horizontal
distances, and (iv) a level field book for recording the staff readings,
distances, and other field notes.
TYPES OF LEVEL

• The dumpy Level

• The wye or Y Level
• The Cooke’s reversible Level
• The crushing’s Level
• Tilting Level
• The automatic Level
• The Electronic Level
TYPES OF LEVEL

DUMPY LEVEL
TYPES OF LEVEL
TYPES OF LEVEL

WYE OR Y- LEVEL
TYPES OF LEVEL

TILTING LEVEL
TYPES OF LEVEL

AUTOMATIC LEVEL
TYPES OF LEVEL

Electronic Level
LEVELLING STAFF
• The leveling Staff is used to determine the vertical
distance’s of the points below the horizontal line of sight
• There are various types of graduated Staff :
– Folding type 4-meter leveling Staff
– Invar precision leveling Staff
– Sopwith telescopic Staff
– Target Staff
– Bar Coded Staff
LEVELLING STAFF

THE FOLDING STAFF

LEVELLING STAFF

THE TARGET STAFF

LEVELLING STAFF
LEVELLING STAFF

BAR CODE STAFF

HOLDING THE STAFF
• Utmost care should be taken in holding the staff truly
vertical while the reading is taken. To hold the staff in a vertical
position, the staffman stands behind the staff, heels together, with
the heel of the staff between his toes, and holds it between the
palm of his hands at the height of his face. If it is not vertical, the
reading will be too great. Special care must be exercised with
larger readings, since the error due to a given deviation from the
vertical vary with the readings. In precise leveling, the staff is
equipped with a folding circular level or a pendulum plumb bob to
make it plumb while in ordinary leveling, the staff is waved slowly
forward, i.e. towards the level, and backward, i.e. away from the
level, and the lowest reading taken to avoid these errors.
HOLDING THE STAFF
READING THE STAFF
The staff readings should be taken in the following order:
• Having set up and leveled the instrument carefully, direct the telescope
towards the staff held vertically on the station and focus it
• Always bring the staff between the two vertical hairs, and always use the
portion of the horizontal cross-hair between them in reading the staff. By
means of the vertical hairs, the levelman can see if the staff is out of
plumb (sloping) sideways. If there be only one vertical hair, a reading
should be taken at the intersection
• Observe if the bubble is in center. If not, center it by using one of the
foot screws most nearly in line with the telescope, and note the readings
at which the horizontal cross-hair appears to cut the staff.
• If the target staff is used, the procedure is the same except that the
target is set by the staff man as directed by the instrument man , and the
reading is then taken and recorded by the staff man
 BENCH MARKS
Bench Marks:
A relatively permanent and fixed reference point of known elevation above the assumed datum,
is called a bench mark.

There are four kinds of bench marks:

(i) G. T. S. (Great Trigonometrical Survey)

(ii) Permanent

(iii) Arbitrary

(iv) Temporary
G.T.S Bench Marks:
These bench marks are established by the Survey of Pakistan with greatest precision at
an interval of 100 Km (normally) all over all country. Their elevation refer to the mean sea level
datum obtained by hourly observations of the tides over a specific time frame. These are
depicted on the topo sheets published by the Survey of Pakistan and their elevations correct to
two decimal points of a decimal of a meter, are entered.

Permanent Bench Marks:

These bench marks are established between G.T.S bench marks by the Survey of Pakistan
, or other government agencies such as PWD, on clearly defined and permanent natural or
cultural detail points such as isolated rocks culverts, kilometer stones, railway platforms, gate
pillars of inspection houses, etc.

Arbitrary Bench Marks:

These are the reference points whose elevations are arbitrarily assumed for small
leveling operations. Their elevations do not refer to any fixed datum as in case of G.T.S. or
permanent bench marks.
Temporary Bench Marks:
These are the reference points on which a day’s work is closed and from where
leveling is continued next day in the absence of a permanent bench mark. Their elevations are
referred to as the reduced levels. Such bench marks are carefully established on permanent
detail points such as kilometer stones, parapets, floor of verandahs, root of old trees, etc. Their
correct descriptions should invariably be written in level books.

Steps in Leveling: - There are two essential steps in leveling. There first step is to find the
elevation or R.L. of the plane of collimation (H.I) of the level by taking a back sight on a bench
mark. The second step is to find the elevation or R.L. of any other point by taking a reading on
the staff held at that point.
 PRINCIPLES OF LEVELLING
Simple leveling:
It is the simplest operation in leveling. When it is required to find the difference in the
elevation between two points, both of which are visible from a single point. Suppose A and B
are two such points and the level is set up at O, approximately midway between A and B. The
staff reading is then taken. Let the respective readings on A and B be 2.340m and 3.135m. The
difference between these readings gives the difference of the level between A and B, which is
equal to 3.135 – 2.340 = 0.795m
If the R.L of A is 100, the R.L of B may be found as:

H.I at O = 100 +2.340 = 102.340

R.L of B = 102.340 – 3.135 = 99.205

Differential Leveling: - This method is used in order to find the difference in elevation between
two point. (i) If they are too far apart, or (ii) If the difference in elevation between them is too
great, or (iii) If there are obstacles intervening. In such a case, it is necessary to set up the level
in several positions and to work in a series of stages. The method of simple leveling is employed
in each of the successive stages. The process is also known as compound or continuous leveling.
The difference of level between A and B is equal to the algebraic sum of these differences or
equals the difference between the sum of the back sights and the sum of the foresights. ( ΣB.S –
ΣF.S )

If the difference is positive, it indicates that the point B is higher than the point A; while if
negative, the point B is lower than the point A. If the R.L of A is known, the R.L of B may be
found by the relation.

R.L of B = R.L of A + ΣB.S – ΣF.S

The reduced levels of the intermediate points, if required, may be found by the relation:

R.L of a point = R.L of B.M + back sight – Intermediate sight

Reduction of Levels
The collimation or instrument height system & rise and fall system
• The collimation system:
• It consists in finding the elevation of the plane of collimation (H.I.) for
every set-up of the instrument, and then obtaining the reduced levels of
points with reference to the respective plane of collimation.
• Arithmetical Check:- The difference between the sum of the backsights
and the sum of the foresights should be equal to the difference between
the first and the last reduced levels. This check verifies the calculation of
the reduced levels of the planes of collimation and of the change points
only. There is no check on the reduction of the intermediate reduced
levels.
• The Rise and Fall System:
• It consists in determining the difference of level between the consecutive
points by comparing each point after the first with that immediately
preceding it.
• The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise or fall
according as the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater
than that at the preceding point. The reduced level of each point is
then found by adding the rise to, or subtracting the fall from the
reduced level of the preceding point.
• Arithmetical check:- There are three checks on the accuracy of the
reductions. The difference between the sum of the back sights and
the sum of the foresights = the difference between the sum of the
rises and that of falls = the difference between the first and the last
reduced levels.
• ΣB.S – ΣF.S = ΣRISE – ΣFALL = LAST R.L – FIRST R.L
• Example 6: - The following consecutive reading were taken
with a dumpy level:
0.894, 1.643, 2.896, 3.016, 0.954, 0.692,
0.582, 0.251, 1.532, 0.996, 2.135.
The instrument was shifted after the fourth and the eighth
readings. The first reading was taken on the staff held on the
bench mark of R.L. 820.765.
Rule out a page of a level field book and enter the above
readings. Calculate the reduced levels of the points and show the
usual checks.
what is the difference of level between the first and last
points?
Station Readings Rise Fall Reduced Remarks
Level
Back Inter Fore
sight sight sight
1 0.894 820.765 B.M.

2. 1.643 0.749 820.016

3. 2.896 1.253 818.763
4. 0.954 3.016 0.120 818.643 C.P.
5. 0.692 0.262 818.905

6. 0.582 0.110 819.015

7. 1.532 0.251 0.331 819.346 C.P.
8. 0.996 0.536 819.882
9. 2.135 1.139 818.743

Arith- 3.380 5.402 1.239 3.261 -2.022

Metical
Check -2.022 -2.022
• Example 7: - The following consecutive readings were taken
with a level and a 4 meter leveling staff on continuously sloping
ground at a common interval of 30 m: 0.585 on A, 0.936, 1.953,
2.846, 3.644, 3.938, 0.962, 1.035, 1.689, 2.534, 3.844, 0.956,
1.579, 3.016, on B.

The elevation of A was 520.450. Make up a level book and

apply the usual checks. Determine the gradient of the line AB.
Station Distance Readings Collimation Reduced Remarks
Level
Back Inter Fore
sight sight sight
A 0 0.585 521.035 520.450
30 0.936 520.099
60 1.953 519.082
90 2.846 518.189
120 3.644 517.391
150 0.962 3.938 518.059 517.097 Change Point

180 1.035 517.024

210 1.689 516.370
240 2.534 515.525
270 0.965 3.844 515.171 514.215 Change Point

300 1.579 513.592

B 330 3.016 512.155
Arithmetical 2.503 10.798 -8.295
Check -8.295
Comparison of the two systems
• The collimation system is less tedious more rapid and involves less calculations.
However, mistakes made in reduction of levels of the intermediate points remain
undetected, while in the rise and fall system, there is a complete check on each of
the intermediate reductions. The first system is generally used in profile leveling and
in setting out levels for constructional work, while the second one is preferred for
differential leveling, and other important work.
 PROFILE LEVELLING
“It is the operation in which the object is to determine the elevations of points at a known
distances apart along a given line, and thus to obtain the accurate outline of the surface of the
ground. It is also called the longitudinal leveling or sectioning.”

The leveling operations always start from a bench mark and end on a bench mark. If the
permanent bench mark is not near the line of section, flying levels may be run from the
permanent bench mark to establish a bench mark near the line of section.
Plotting The Profile
 CROSS SECTIONING
“Cross sections are the sections run at right angles to the centre line and on either side of it for
the purpose of determining the lateral outline of the ground surface.”
Plotting The Cross Sections
Curvature and Refraction
• 1. In precise levelling work or when sights are long, the
effects of curvature and refraction have to be taken into
account
• 2. The effect of curvature is to cause the objects sighted
to appear lower than they really are, while that of
refraction is to make them appear higher than they really
are
• 3. The combined effect of curvature and refraction is that
the objects appear lower than they really are
Effect of Curvature
• 1. In the case of long sights, the horizontal line is not a level line,
i.e. a line of equal altitude due to the curvature of the earth. The
level line falls away from the horizontal line , and the vertical
distance between the horizontal line and the level line represents
the effect of the curvature of the earth
• 2. In fig, A is the station at which the level is set up; P the point at
which a staff is held
• 3. AʹB and AʹC represent the horizontal and level lines passing
through the axis of the telescope and intersecting the staff at B and
C respectively. On looking through the telescope, we sight in the
direction of AʹB and obtain the staff reading PB. The point B thus
appears to be at the same level Aʹ as but actually the points Aʹ and
C are at the same level. The true reading is, therefore PC. Thus,
there is an apparent loss of elevation of the staff station P.
Effect of Curvature
• The difference BC between the observer (or apparent) reading PB
and the true reading PC represent the error due to the curvature of
the earth. The true reading may be obtained by applying a
correction equal to BC to the observed reading PB.
Formula for the Curvature Correction
ACE = the level line through the instrument axis
B = the horizontal line (the line of collimation)
O = the centre of the earth
D = the distance (AB) from the instrument station to the
staff station, in km.
R = the radius of the earth (OA or OC), in km
d = the diameter of the earth (CE), in km
BC = the correction for curvature
Formula for the Curvature Correction
• OB2 = OA2 + AB2
(BC + OC)2 = OA2 + AB2
BC2 + OC2 + 2(BC)(OC) = OA2 + AB2 (OC = OA = R)
• Since BC is usually very small as compared with the diameter of the earth, BC 2
may be neglected.
Therefore,
2(BC)(OC) = AB2
BC = AB2/2(OC)
BC = AB2/2R
BC = AB2/d
Taking the diameter of the earth as 12742km, we get:
BC (in km) = AB2/12742
BC (in m) = AB2 × 1000/12742
BC (in m) = 0.0785 D2
Here D is the distance in km from the level to the staff station.
NOTE: Since the effect of curvature is to increase the staff reading, the
correction is subtractive.
Effect of Refraction
• 1. Rays of light passing through layers of air of different densities
are refracted or bent down. Consequently, the ray of light from the
staff to the instrument is not straight, as hitherto presumed
• 2. It follows a curved path AD as shown in the fig:
Effect of Refraction
• 3. The curved path which is concave towards the earth may be
taken as an arc of a circle having a radius equal to seven times that
of the earth under normal atmospheric conditions
• 4. Thus, the line of collimation of the level will intersect the staff at
D instead of at B so that the graduation at D would apparently be
at B, as seen from A. Hence the effect of refraction is to diminish
the staff reading
• 5. The effect of refraction is not constant, but varies with the
atmospheric conditions
6. On an average, it may be taken as one-seventh of that to
curvature, and is in the opposite direction (opposite in sign).
• NOTE: Correction of refraction is additive to the staff reading.
Effect of Refraction
• 7. The correction for refraction (BD) in metres = 1/7 × BC
= 1/7 × 0.0785 D2
= 0.0112 D2
• Combined Correction:
– 1. Since the combined effect of curvature and refraction is to
increase the staff readings, the combined correction is
subtractive
– 2. The combined error due to curvature and refraction is CD:
CD = BC – BD = BC – 1/7 × BC = 6/7 × BC
= 6/7 × 0.0785 D2
= 0.0673 D2