Topics: 1 Be-Physics-Introduction To Quantum Physics-2018-19 04/03/2020 MUJ

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
TOPICS
• Blackbody Radiation & Plank’s Hypothesis
• The Photoelectric Effect
• The Compton Effect
• Photons and Electromagnetic Waves
• The Quantum Particle
• de Broglie hypothesis
• Davisson-Germer Experiment
• Quantum particle
• The Uncertainty Principle
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BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2018-19 1
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS
INTRODUCTION
Origin of thermal radiation –

- heated object radiates---- Photon
Concept of oscillators
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Definition of a Black-Body
Black-Body Radation Laws
1- The Stefan-Boltzmann Law
2- The Wien‘s Displacement Law
3- The Rayleigh-Jeans Law
4- The Planck Law
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Definition of a black body

An object that absorbs
all incident radiation.
A small hole cut into a

cavity is the most
popular and realistic
example.
None of the incident
radiation escapes.
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• radiation is absorbed
• causes a heating of the cavity walls.
• The oscillators in the cavity walls vibrate
• cavity walls re-radiate at wavelengths
corresponding to the temperature of the cavity,
producing standing waves in the cavity. Some
of the energy from these standing waves can
leave through the opening. The electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the black body is called
black-body radiation.
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• The black body is an ideal absorber of

incident radaition.
• The emitted "thermal" radiation from a black
body characterizes the equilibrium
temperature of the black-body.
• Emitted radiation from a blackbody does not
depend on the material of which the walls are
made.
Ex. Lamp black (96%) and platinum black
(98%)
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At about 6000 K (not shown in

Figure shows Intensity of
fig.), the peak is in the center of
blackbody radiation versus
the visible wavelengths and the
wavelength at three temperatures
object appears white.
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Basic Laws of Radiation
1) All objects emit radiant energy.
2) Hotter objects emit more energy than colder

objects (per unit area). The total power of
the emitted radiation increases with
temperature.
This is Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
3) The peak of the wavelength distribution

shifts to shorter wavelengths as the black
body temperature increases. This is Wien’s
displacement Law.
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Black-Body Radiation Laws (1)

 Stefan Boltzmann Law.
P =  Ae T 4
P = power radiated from the surface of the

object(W)
T = temperature (K)
s = 5.670 x 10-8 W/m2K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann
constant)
A = surface area of the object (m2)
e = emissivity of the surface (for a blackbody e =1).
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 Wien’s Displacement Law.
lm T = constant = 2.898 × 10-3 m- K, or lm  T-1
Where lm - peak of the wavelength distribution

in the black body emission spectrum.
T- equilibrium temperature of the blackbody.

(A black-body reaches thermal equilibrium
when the incident radiation power is balanced
by the power re-radiated).
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Thermal radiation from Different Objects.

Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody
radiation emitted by each of the following.
A. The human body when the skin temperature is

35°C
B. The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which

operates at 2000 K
C. The Sun, which has a surface temperature of

about 5800 K.
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 The Rayleigh-Jeans Law.
2 πck B T
This law tries to explain the distribution I (λ , T ) =
of energy from a black body. λ4
I (,T) d is the intensity or power per
unit area emitted in the wavelength
interval d from a blackbody.
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kB – Boltzmann's constant
T- equilibrium blackbody
temperature Rayleigh-Jeans Law
c- velocity of light.
*It agrees with experimental

measurements for long
wavelengths.
* It predicts an energy
output that diverges
towards infinity as
wavelengths grow smaller.
The failure has become known as the
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catastrophe.
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2 π hc 2 1
I(λ, T) =
 The Planck Law λ5 hc
λk B T
e - 1
This law too explains the distribution of

energy from a black body.
I (,T) d is the intensity or power per unit

area emitted in the wavelength interval d
from a blackbody. Only the extra quantity
(compared to the Rayleigh-Jeans Law)
coming here is the constant known as
Plank’s constant introduced by Max Plank in
this revolutionary theory.
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. In short the law fitted the experimental

data for all wavelength regions and at all
temperatures.
But for this to happen, Plank made two bold and

controversial assumptions concerning the nature of the
oscillators in the cavity walls.
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1) The energy of an oscillator can have only

certain discrete values E n
E n = nhf
where n is a positive integer called a

quantum number, f is the frequency of
oscillation, and h is a constant called
Planck’s constant. Energy of the oscillator is
quantized. Each discrete energy value
corresponds to a different quantum state,
represented by the quantum number n.
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2) The oscillators emit or absorb energy only

when making a transition from one quantum
state to another.
Difference in energy will be integral multiples of hf.
If it remains in one quantum state, no energy
is emitted or absorbed.
to n =
∞
E n
4h 4
f
Figure shows allowed energy 3h 3
levels for an oscillator with
ENERGY
f
2h 2
frequency f, and the allowed f
hf
Transitions. 1
0 0
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The results of Planck's law
 the denominator [exp(hc/lkBT )] tends to infinity

faster than the numerator (l-5), thus resolving the
infrared catastrophe.
i.e. I (l, T)  0 as l  0.
 for very large l,

hc
exp(hc / λkBT ) - 1 ≈ ⇒ I ( λ , T) → λ- 4 kBT
λkBT
 From a fit between Planck's law and experimental
data, Planck's constant was derived to be
h = 6.626 × 10-34 J.s
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Planck hypothesis
Planck law
Weins law- at low
wavelength
Rayleigh jeans law- at
high wavelength.
2 π hc 2 1
I(λ, T) =
λ5 hc
λk B T
e - 1
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THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
What is Photoelectric Effect?

Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
T – Evacuated
glass/ quartz tube
E – Emitter Plate/
T
Photosensitive
material /Cathode
C – Collector Plate /
Anode
V – Voltmeter
A - Ammeter
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Experimental Observations
1. When plate E is illuminated by light of
suitable frequency, electrons are emitted
from E and a current is detected in A.
2. Photocurrent
produced Vs
potential difference
applied graph
shows that
maximum kinetic
energy of the
emitted electrons,
Kmax = e Vs
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3. Maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectron is independent of light
intensity.
4. Electrons are emitted from the surface of the

emitter almost instantaneously.
5. No electrons are emitted if the incident light

frequency falls below a cutoff frequency.
6. Maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectrons increases with increasing
light frequency.
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Classical Predictions
1. If light is really a wave, it was thought that
if one shine light of any fixed wavelength, at
sufficient intensity on the emitter surface,
electrons should absorb energy continuously
from the em waves and electrons should be
ejected.
2. As the intensity of light is increased (made it
brighter and hence classically, a more
energetic wave), kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons should increase.
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4. Ejection of photoelectron should not

depend on light frequency
5. Photoelectron kinetic energy should not

depend upon the frequency of the
incident light.
In short experimental results

contradict classical predictions.
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Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect
A photon of the incident light gives all its

energy hf to a single electron (Absorption
of energy by the electrons is not a
continuous process as envisioned in the
wave model) and Kmax = hf - 
 is called the work function of the metal.

It is the minimum energy with which an
electron is bound in the metal.
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All the observed features of photoelectric effect
could be explained by Einstein’s photoelectric
equation.
1. Equation shows that Kmax depends only on
frequency of the incident light.
2. Almost instantaneous emission of photoelectrons
due to one -to –one interaction between photons
and electrons.
3. Ejection of electrons depends on light frequency
since photons should have energy greater than
the work function  in order to eject an electron.
4. The cutoff frequency fc is  related to by fc =  /h.
If the incident frequency f is less than fc , no
emission of photoelectrons.
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Einstein predicted that a

graph of the maximum
kinetic energy Kmax Vs
frequency f would be a
straight line, given by the
linear relation,
Kmax = hf - 
And indeed such a linear
relationship was observed.
And this work won Einstein his Nobel Prize in 1921

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eV0 =Kmax
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• Q. ultraviolet light of wavelength 350 nm and
intensity 1 w/m2 is directed to a potassium
surface .
(a) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
(b) if 0.5% of the incident photons produce
photoelectrons , how many are emitted per
second if the potassium surface has an area
of 1.00 cm2 .
Work function of potassium is 2.2eV.
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Q. Under favorable circumstances the human
eye on detect 10-18 J of the electromagnetic
energy. How many 600 nm photon does this
represent?
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
Introduction
E  p c m c
2 2 2 2 4
Here E is the total energy of the particle

E = m c2
P and m are the momentum and mass of the particle.
expression for the

momentum of a particle P = mv
v = speed of the particle & c = speed of light in

vacuum
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
SUMMARY OF PHOTON PROPERTIES

Relation between particle and wave properties of light
Energy, frequency, and wavelength, E = hf =

hcwe
Also / have relation between momentum and
wavelength of a photon as follows
For light, m = 0,  E= pc . Also c= f

E hf h
p= = =
c λf λ
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
What is Compton Effect ?

Compton (1923)
measured intensity of
scattered X-rays from
solid target (scattering of
X-rays from electrons), as
function of wavelength scattered beam
for different angles. In

such a scattering, a shift
in wavelength for the
scattered X-rays takes
place, which is known as
Compton Effect.
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In the scattering
process, the total
energy and total
linear momentum of
the system must be
conserved.
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
Experimental Observations
Compton could explain the experimental result by
taking a “billiard ball” type collisions between
particles of light (X-ray photons) and electrons in
the material.
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
The graphs for three nonzero angles show two peaks,

one at 0 and one at ’ > 0 . The shifted peak at ’ is
caused by the scattering of X-rays from free electrons.
Shift in wavelength was predicted by Compton to
depend on scattering angle as
h
λ' - λ 0  (1 - cos θ)
mec
This is known as Compton shift equation, and the
factor is h called the Compton wavelength.
mec h
= 0.00243 nm
mec
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
Q. Compton scattering at 45°

X-rays of wavelength 0 = 0.20 nm are scattered from
a block of material. The scattered X-rays are
observed at an angle of 45° to the incident beam.
Calculate their wavelength.
Q. Calculate the energy and momentum of a

photon of wavelength 700 nm.
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
Q. A 0.00160 nm photon scatters from a free

electron. For what photon scattering angle does
the recoiling electron have kinetic energy equal
to the energy of the scattered photon?
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Q.
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PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Photons and Electromagnetic Waves

Evidence for wave-nature of
light
• Diffraction
• Interference
Evidence for particle-nature

of light
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect
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•Light exhibits diffraction and interference

phenomena that are only explicable in terms of wave
properties.
• Photoelectric effect and Compton effect can only
be explained taking light as photons/ particle
• This means true nature of light is not describable
in terms of any single classical picture.
•In short, the particle model and the wave model of
light compliment each other.
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De Broglie
The Wave Properties of Particles
We have seen that light comes in discrete units

(photons) with particle properties (energy and
momentum) that are related to the wave-like
properties of frequency and wavelength.
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de Broglie Hypothesis
h
 Planck’s constant
h  6.63  1034 Js
de Broglie wavelength
p
and
f= E Energy of the particle
h
frequency of the particle
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p = momentum of the particle,

h h p = m v for a non-relativistic particle
λ= =
p mv m = mass of the particle
V = velocity of the particle
The electron accelerated through a potential

difference of V has a non relativistic kinetic energy
1
2
mv eV
2
m = mass, v = velocity
p=mv = 2me V
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Q. find the kinetic energy of the proton whose
de- broglie wavelength is 1fm.
Q. Find the de Broglie wavelength of (a) a 46 g
golf ball with a velocity of 30 m/s, (b) an
electron with a velocity of 107 m/s.
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Davisson & Germer experiment
Energy of the
electron beam,
the angle at
which they reach
the target , and
position of the
detector could be
varied.
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Results
For beam of 54eV energy have sharp maximum
in the electron distribution occurred at angle
50o .
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2dsin
= 0.091nm
d
mv=(2mk.E)1/2 & = 65o
This experiment confirmed de- Broglie

relationship p = h /.
Subsequently it was found that atomic beams,

and beams of neutrons, also exhibit diffraction
when reflected from regular crystals. Thus de
Broglie's formula seems to apply to any kind of
matter.
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Now the dual nature of matter and radiation is

an accepted fact. And it is stated in the principle
of complementarity. This states that wave and
particle models of either matter or radiation
compliment each other.
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Q. A particle of charge q and mass m has been

accelerated from rest to a nonrelativistic speed through
a potential difference of V. Find an expression for its de
Broglie wavelength.
Q. (a) An electron has a kinetic energy of 3.0

eV. Find its wavelength. (b) Also find the
wavelength of a photon having the same
energy.
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Q. In the Davisson-
Germer experiment, 54.0
eV electrons were
diffracted from a nickel
lattice. If the first
maximum in the
diffraction pattern was
observed at = 50.0°,
what was the lattice
spacing a between the
vertical rows of atoms in
the figure?
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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
What is a Quantum Particle?
Quantum particle is a model by which

particles having dual nature are represented.
We must choose one appropriate behavior for
the quantum particle (particle or wave) in
order to understand a particular behavior.
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Now to build a localized entity from an

infinitely long wave, waves of same amplitude,
but slightly different frequencies are
superposed. The result of superposition of two
such waves are shown below.
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If we add up large number of waves in a similar

way, the small localized region of space where
constructive interference takes place is called a
wavepacket, which represents a particle.
In the figure, large

number of waves are
Combined. The result
is a wave packet,
which represents a
particle.
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Mathematical Representation of a wave packet
superposition of two waves of equal amplitude, but

with slightly different frequencies, f1 & f2 and
wavelengths, traveling in the same direction are
considered. The waves are written as
y = A cos ( k 1x - ω 1 t )
1
and y 2 = A cos ( k 2 x - ω 2 t )
The resultant wave is, y = y1 + y2

Δk Δω k1 + k2 ω1 + ω2
[ (
y = 2A cos
2
x-
2
t )] (
cos
2
x-
2
t)
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Amplitude varies
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with t and x
58
Beat
Where k = k1 – k2 and  = 1 – 2. frequency
The resulting wave oscillates with the average
frequency, and its amplitude envelope varies
according to the difference frequency.
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This envelope can travel through space with a different

speed than the individual waves. This speed is called
the group speed or the speed of the wave packet (the
group of waves)
The group speed, υg =

( Δω 2) =
Δω
( Δk 2) Δk
For a superposition of large number of waves to form a
wave packet, this ratio is
dω
υg =
dk
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A realistic wave is characterized by two different

speeds. The phase speed, the speed with which
single wave moves, which is given by
& the group speed, the speed with which the

envelope moves. This is given by
In general these two speeds are not the same.
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Relation between group speed and phase speed
ω
we have, υphase = = f λ
k
i.e., ω = k υphase = k υp
dω d ( kvp ) dυp
But υg = = =k + υp
dk dk dk
Substituting for k in terms of , we get

dυp
g = p – 
dλ
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Q. An electron has a de Broglie wavelength of 2
pm. Find its kinetic energy and the phase and
group velocity of its de Broglie waves.
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THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Quantum theory predicts that, it is fundamentally

impossible to make simultaneous measurements
of a particle’s position & momentum with
infinite accuracy. This is known as Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. The uncertainties arise from
the quantum structure of matter.
For a particle represented by a single wavelength

wave existing throughout space,  is precisely
known, and according to de- Broglie hypothesis, its p
is also known accurately. But the position of the
particle in this case becomes uncertain.
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In short ( x ) ( px) ≥ h / 4
Also ( E ) ( t) ≥ h / 4
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Locating an electron
The speed of an electron is measured to be
5.00 x 103 m/s to an accuracy of 0.0030%. Find
the minimum uncertainty in determining the
position of this electron. [0.386 mm]
The Line Width of Atomic Emissions

The lifetime of an excited atom is given as 1.0 x 10-8 s.
Using the uncertainty principle, compute the line width
f produced by this finite lifetime? [8.0 × 106 Hz]
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Q. Find the minimum kinetic energy of a

proton confined within a nucleus having a
diameter of 1.0 x 10-15 m. [5.21 MeV]
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QUESTIONS
10. Which are the features of photoelectric effect-experiment
explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation? [2]
11. Sketch schematically the following graphs with reference to
the photoelectric effect: (a) photoelectric current vs applied
voltage (b) kinetic energy of most-energetic electron vs
frequency of incident light. [1EACH]
12. Explain Compton effect. [2]
13. Explain the experiment on Compton effect. [5]
14.Derive the Compton shift equation. [5]
15. Explain the wave properties of the particles. [2]
16. Explain a wavepacket and represent it schematically. [2]
17. Explain (a) group speed (b) phase speed, of a wavepacket.
[1+1]
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QUESTIONS
20. Show that the group speed of a wavepacket is equal to the
particle speed. [2]
21. Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. [1]
22. Write the equations for uncertainty in (a) position and
momentum (b) energy and time. [1]
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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

Origin of thermal radiation –

Definition of a black body

A small hole cut into a

• The black body is an ideal absorber of

At about 6000 K (not shown in

Basic Laws of Radiation

1) All objects emit radiant energy.

2) Hotter objects emit more energy than colder

3) The peak of the wavelength distribution

Black-Body Radiation Laws (1)

P = power radiated from the surface of the

Black-Body Radiation Laws (2)

lm T = constant = 2.898 × 10-3 m- K, or lm  T-1

Where lm - peak of the wavelength distribution

T- equilibrium temperature of the blackbody.

Thermal radiation from Different Objects.

A. The human body when the skin temperature is

B. The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which

C. The Sun, which has a surface temperature of

*It agrees with experimental

Black-Body Radiation Laws (4)

This law too explains the distribution of

I (,T) d is the intensity or power per unit

. In short the law fitted the experimental

But for this to happen, Plank made two bold and

1) The energy of an oscillator can have only

where n is a positive integer called a

2) The oscillators emit or absorb energy only

The results of Planck's law

 the denominator [exp(hc/lkBT )] tends to infinity

 for very large l,

What is Photoelectric Effect?

3. Maximum kinetic energy of the

4. Electrons are emitted from the surface of the

5. No electrons are emitted if the incident light

6. Maximum kinetic energy of the

4. Ejection of photoelectron should not

5. Photoelectron kinetic energy should not

In short experimental results

Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect

A photon of the incident light gives all its

 is called the work function of the metal.

Einstein predicted that a

And this work won Einstein his Nobel Prize in 1921

Here E is the total energy of the particle

expression for the

v = speed of the particle & c = speed of light in

SUMMARY OF PHOTON PROPERTIES

Energy, frequency, and wavelength, E = hf =

For light, m = 0,  E= pc . Also c= f

What is Compton Effect ?

for different angles. In

The graphs for three nonzero angles show two peaks,

Q. Compton scattering at 45°

Q. Calculate the energy and momentum of a

Q. A 0.00160 nm photon scatters from a free

Photons and Electromagnetic Waves

Evidence for particle-nature

•Light exhibits diffraction and interference

The Wave Properties of Particles

We have seen that light comes in discrete units