COLLECTION

What is Data?
- Types of Data
-Tools of Data Collection: Observation
Techniques, Questionnaires, Interview
Schedule, Participatory Rural Appraisal

Data Analysis, Data Interpretation &

Graphical Representative
WHAT IS IT?
 It is the process of gathering and measuring information
on variables of interest

 It is done in an established systematic fashion that

enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

 The data collection component of research is common

to all fields of study including physical and social
sciences, humanities, business, etc.

 Methods of Data Collection vary by discipline, howevere

the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest
collection remains the same.
RESPONSIBLE CONDUCT IN DATA
MANAGEMENT
CONSEQUENCES FROM IMPROPERLY
COLLECTED DATA INCLUDE

 inability to answer research questions accurately

 inability to repeat and validate the study

 distorted findings resulting in wasted resources

 misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless

avenues of investigation

 compromising decisions for public policy

 causing harm to human participants and animal

subjects
ISSUES RELATED TO MAINTAINING INTEGRITY OF
DATA COLLECTION:
 The primary rationale for preserving data integrity
is to support the detection of errors in the data
collection process, whether they are made
intentionally (deliberate falsifications) or not
(systematic or random errors).

 There are two approaches that can preserve data

integrity and ensure the scientific validity of study
results.

 Quality assurance - activities that take

place before data collection begins

 Quality control - activities that take

place during and after data collection
 QUALITY ASSURANCE
 Since quality assurance precedes data collection, its
main focus is ‘Prevention' (i.e., forestalling
problems with data collection).

 Prevention is the most cost-effective activity to

ensure the integrity of data collection.

 This proactive measure is best demonstrated by

the Standardization of Protocol developed in a
comprehensive and detailed procedures manual for
data collection.

 Poorly Written Manuals increase the risk of failing to

identify problems and errors early in the research
endeavor. 
 THESE FAILURES MAY BE DEMONSTRATED IN A NUMBER OF WAYS:
 Uncertainty about the timing, methods, and identify of
person(s) responsible for reviewing data

 Partial listing of items to be collected

 Vague description of data collection instruments to be used in

lieu of rigorous step-by-step instructions on administering
tests

 Failure to identify specific content and strategies for training

or retraining staff members responsible for data collection

 Obscure instructions for using, making adjustments to, and

calibrating data collection equipment (if appropriate)

 No identified mechanism to document changes in procedures

that may evolve over the course of the investigation .
 An important component of quality assurance is
developing a rigorous and detailed recruitment and
training plan.

 Implicit in training is the need to effectively

communicate the value of accurate data collection to
trainees.

 The training aspect is particularly important to address

the potential problem of staff who may unintentionally
deviate from the original protocol.

 This phenomenon, known as ‘drift’, should be corrected

with additional training, a provision that should be
specified in the procedures manual.
 QUALITY CONTROL
 Quality control activities occur during and after data
collection.

 The details should be carefully documented in the

procedures manual.

 A clearly defined communication structure is a necessary

pre-condition for establishing monitoring systems.

 There should not be any uncertainty about the flow of

information between principal investigators and staff
members following the detection of errors in data collection.

 A poorly developed communication structure encourages

lax monitoring and limits opportunities for detecting errors.
 Detection or monitoring can take the form of
direct staff observation during site visits,
conference calls, or regular and frequent reviews
of data reports to identify inconsistencies,
extreme values or invalid codes.

 While site visits may not be appropriate for all

disciplines, failure to regularly audit records,
whether quantitative or quantitative, will make it
difficult for investigators to verify that data
collection is proceeding according to procedures
established in the manual.

 In addition, if the structure of communication is

not clearly delineated in the procedures manual,
transmission of any change in procedures to staff
members can be compromised
 QualityControl checks the
following:

Errors in individual data items

Systematic errors
Violation of protocol
Problems with individual staff
or site performance
Fraud or scientific misconduct
 Each field of study has its preferred set
of data collection instruments.

 The hallmark of laboratory sciences is

the meticulous documentation of the lab
notebook while social sciences such as
sociology and cultural anthropology may
prefer the use of detailed field notes.

 Regardless of the discipline,

comprehensive documentation of the
collection process before, during and
after the activity is essential to
preserving data integrity.
SO WHAT IS DATA:
The Scores obtained on the
measure of Dependent
Variables.

E.g:
Average Height of students in
a class
Percentage of women that
voted in last general election
NOW WHAT IS VARIABLE:
 It is something which varies, i.e it takes two or
more values, it is common to a number of
individuals, groups, events, objects etc…

 Variables are characteristics/ quality/ features/

aspects which can be measured

 They are those characteristics or conditions that

can be manipulated, controlled, observed by the
researcher.
 IndependentVariable
 Dependent Variable
 E.g:

 Age ( young, middle aged, old),

 Income class (lower, middle upper)
 Education (literate, less educated,
highly educated)
 Development of a country (Under-
Developed, Developing, Developed)
 Achievement of an individual etc….
Intelligence, anxiety, aptitude etc
etc…
 An INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is the presumed cause
of the DEPENDENT VARIABLE
 A DEPENDENT VARIABLE is the presumed effect of
the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE


Suppose “A” causes “B”
 A  INDEPENDENT VARIABLE /X variable in
Statistics
 B  DEPENDENT VARIABLE/Y variable in Statistics
 A teacher wants to know which method of teaching
is more effective in the student’s understanding.
 Options:

 Lecture Method

 Question Answer Method

 Visual Method

 Combination of two or more of these methods

 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE  method of teaching

 DEPENDENT VARIABLE  student’s understanding.

TYPES OF DATA
Data/information may be classified into PRIMARY &
SECONDARY depending on the nature of data and the
mode of collection.

Primary Data are empirical observations gathered by the

researcher or research associates for the First Time for
any research & then used in the statistical analysis.

It may be Qualitative/ that which will signify some trait,

characteristics, brand, grade, status or Quantitative/ that
which will show some quantity, measurement, number,
mass, - more or less

Primary data are generally accepted as Original Data.

These data are also called Raw Data by some researchers.

These data are collected at first hand either by the

researcher for satisfying his/her purpose or by someone
else especially for the purpose of research study.
 The Secondary Data is also known as Published
Data. Data which are not originally collected but
rather obtained from published sources and
statistically processed are known as secondary
data.

 Secondary Data have been already collected by

others in the past and used in the past.
 Following are the main sources of secondary data:

 Official Publications

 Semi-Official Publications

 Publications of Research Institutions

 Publications related to trade

 Books/Journals/Newspapers

 Publications by International Bodies

 Unpublished Sources
 WHAT IS DATA COLLECTION?

… it is a purposive gathering of
information relevant to the subject
matter of the study under
consideration.

… the methods depend on the nature,

purpose & scope of inquiry, availability
of resources and time…
 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA:
Following are some general characteristics of
data:

 Data is an Aggregate of Facts:

 Data is Affected to a Large Extent by Multiplicity

of Factors:

 Data is Collected in a Systematic Manner for a

Predetermined Objective

 The Data Must be Related to One Another:

 Data Must be Numerically Expressed:

 Collection
of data procedure obeys a certain
method in order to sustain consistency in
the research process.

 Studies in anthropology, geography, or

sociology often require fieldwork, that is to
say, using techniques such as observation
and questionnaires.

 Postgraduate students may find it awkward.

 Overcome that awkwardness.

TOOLS OF DATA
COLLECTION
Observation Method: Observing Behaviours of
Participants: 

 Specifies the conditions and methods at making

observation.

 The information is sought by way of investigator’s own

direct observation without asking from the respondent.

 The main advantage of this method is that subjective

bias is eliminated, if observations are done accurately.

 It is the most commonly used method especially in

studies relating to behavioral science.
 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD:
 A list of questions pertaining to the survey (known as
questionnaire) is prepared and sent to the various informants
by post.

 The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for

answer.

 A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to

fill up the questionnaire and sent it back within a specified time.

 The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

 The questionnaire can be delivered directly hand by hand,

through surface post or as an electronic questionnaire.

 In preparing a research questionnaire general question, question

wording to collect personal information, use of unfamiliar terms
and jargon, etc. should be avoided.
INTERVIEW METHOD: 
 This involves listening to informants.

 The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of

oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses.

 So, under this method of collecting data, there is a face to face

contact with the persons from whom the information is to be
collected.

 The interviewer asks them question pertaining to the survey and

collects the desired information.

 This method can be used through personal interview, telephone

interview, Chat, Audio Conferencing, Video Conferencing, etc.

 The interview can be structured, semi structured or open

interview.
SCHEDULES METHOD:
 The Enumerator or interviewers who are specially appointed for
the purpose along with schedules, go to the respondents, put to
them the questions from the Proforma in the order the
questionnaire are listed and record the replies in the space meant
for the same in the Proforma.

 In certain situation, schedules may be handed over to

respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their
answer to various questions in the said schedules.

 Enumerator explains the aims and objectives of the investigation

and also removes the difficulties which respondents may feel in
relation to understanding the implication of a particular question
or a definition or concept of difficult term.

 Advantage over the questionnaire method in the sense that the

respondents have no scope to misunderstand any question and
thereby putting irrelevant answer.
INFORMATION FROM CORRESPONDENTS:
 The Investigator/Researcher appoints local agent or
correspondents in different places to collect
information.

 The Correspondents collect and transmit information

to the central office where the data are processed.

 Special advantage of this method is that it is cheap

and appropriate for extensive investigation.

 However, it may not always ensure accurate results

because of the personal prejudice and bias of the
correspondents. Newspaper agencies generally
adopt this method.
          
PARTICIPATORY RURAL
APPRAISAL
 A DATA COLLECTION TOOL
 Participatory Rural Appraisal: Participatory Learning for Action

 PRA or PLA consists of a set of participatory and largely

visual techniques for:
 … Mapping/ Assessing group and community resources,

 … Identifying and Prioritizing problems and

 … Appraising strategies for solving them.

 It is a research/planning methodology in which a

local community (with or without the assistance
of outsiders) studies an issue that concerns the
population, prioritizes problems, evaluates
options for solving the problem(s) and comes up
with a Community Action Plan to address the
concerns that have been raised.
 PRA is a data collection tool that is
particularly concerned about the multiple
perspectives that may exist in any
community.

 These various perspectives are analyzed and

represented in the mapping procedures of
the community resources that the community
itself takes the lead in evaluating its
situation and finding solutions.

 Outsiders may participate as facilitators or in

providing technical information but they
should not 'take charge of the process.
 History
 PRA evolved from rapid rural appraisal-a set of
informal techniques used by development
practitioners in rural areas to collect and
analyze data.

 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) developed in the

1970s and 1980s in response to the perceived
problems of outsiders missing or mis-
communicating with local people in the context
of development work.

 In PRA, data collection and analysis are

undertaken by local people, with outsiders
facilitating rather than controlling.
 InPRA, a number of different tools are used
to gather and analyze information.

 E.g. Draw Maps, Draw Venn Diagrams etc….

 These tools encourage participation, make it

easier for people to express their views and
help to organize information in a way that
makes it more useful and more accessible to
the group that is trying to analyze or work
on a given situation.
SOME FEATURES OF PRA WHICH MAKE IT WELL-SUITED AS A LEARNING
AND PROBLEM-SOLVING TOOL FOR THE RURAL POOR ARE: BUT IT IS
UTILIZED FOR THE URBAN POOR TOO
 It encourages group participation and discussion

 The information to be processed is collected by group

members themselves

 It is presented in highly visual form, usually out in the

open and on the ground, using pictures, symbols and
locally available materials, using twigs of trees to
draw out on the soil or sand.

 Once displayed, the information is “transparent

rather than hidden” - all members can comment on it,
revise it and criticize it.

 This assists in cross-checking and verifying collected

 PRA is an exercise in communication and transfer of
knowledge.

 Regardless of whether it is carried out as part of project

identification or appraisal or as part of country economic
and sector work, the learning-by-doing and teamwork
spirit of PRA requires transparent procedures.

 For that reason, a series of open meetings (an initial

open meeting, final meeting, and follow up meeting)
generally frame the sequence of PRA activities.

 A typical PRA activity involves a team of people working

for two to three weeks on workshop discussions, analysis
and field work
DATA ANALYSIS
DATA INTERPRETATION
 Data interpretation is part of daily life for most people.

 Interpretation
is the process of making sense of
numerical data that has been collected, analyzed, and
presented.

 E.g. People interpret data when they turn on the

television and hear the news anchor reporting on a
poll,

 when they read advertisements claiming that one

product is better than another, or

 whenthey choose grocery store items that claim they

are more effective than other leading brands.
 Researchdepends a great deal on the collected
data but it should be seen that this collected
data is not just a collection of the data but
should also provide good information to the
researcher during the various research
operations.

 Hence to make data good and meaningful in

nature and working, data analysis plays a very
vital and conclusive role. In this step data is
made meaningful with the help of certain
statistical tools which ultimately make data self
explanatory in nature.
IN THE BEGINNING THE DATA IS RAW IN
NATURE BUT AFTER IT IS ARRANGED IN A
CERTAIN FORMAT OR A MEANINGFUL
ORDER THIS RAW DATA TAKES THE FORM
OF THE INFORMATION. THE MOST
CRITICAL AND ESSENTIAL SUPPORTING
PILLARS OF THE RESEARCH ARE THE
ANALYZATION AND THE INTERPRETATION
OF THE DATA.
INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA HAS BECOME A VERY IMPORTANT
AND ESSENTIAL PROCESS, MAINLY BECAUSE OF SOME OF THE
FOLLOWING FACTORS –

 Enables the researcher to have an in – depth knowledge

about the abstract principle behind his own findings.
 The researcher is able to understand his findings and
the reasons behind their existence.
 More understanding and knowledge can be obtained
with the help of the further research.
 Provides a very good guidance in the studies relating to
the research work.
 Sometimes may result in the formation of the
hypothesis.
FIGURING OUT WHAT DATA MEANS IS
JUST AS IMPORTANT AS COLLECTING
IT. EVEN IF THE DATA COLLECTION
PROCESS IS SOUND, DATA CAN BE
MISINTERPRETED. WHEN
INTERPRETING DATA, THE DATA USER
MUST NOT ONLY ATTEMPT TO
DISCERN THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN CAUSALITY AND
COINCIDENCE, BUT ALSO MUST
CONSIDER ALL POSSIBLE FACTORS
THAT MAY HAVE LED TO A RESULT.
 HOW TO DO THAT?

A common method of
assessing numerical data is
known as Statistical
Analysis , and the activity
of analyzing and
interpreting data in order to
make predictions is known
as Inferential Statistics 
ORGANIZING THE DATA
 Organize all Interview
schedules/Questionnaires in one place, you
might want to stack them all in one place.
 Check for completeness & accuracy

 Remove the incomplete ones or those that do

not make any sense
 Keep noting about your decisions
ENTER YOUR DATA
 Manually
 By Computer

 - Excel (Spread Sheet)

 - Microsoft Access (Database Management)

 - Quantitative Analysis (SPSS) – Statistical

Software - Statistical Package for the Social
Scientists
 Count Frequencies, Mean, Median, Mode,
Percentage, Range, Standard Deviation, Quartile
Deviation
INTERPRETING INFORMATION
 Numbers do not speak for themselves
 E.g. What does it mean that 55 youth
reported a change in behavior?
 25% of the participants have rated a
program?
 What is the meaning of these numbers?

 Interpretation is the process of attaching

meaning to the data
 Interpretation demands fair and careful
judgments.
 The same data may be interpreted in
different ways
 Involve others

 See how others interpret the data

 Share results with key stakeholders to

discuss data
 Ask individual participants

 We often recommendations or an Action Plan

 This helps ensure that the results are used

DISCUSS LIMITATIONS
 When you write down reports clearly discuss
LIMITATIONS
 When you orally present the reports be
prepared to discuss the limitations of the
study
 Be honest about limitations

 Know the claims that you cannot make

 …. Do not claim causation without a true

experimental design
 …. Do not generalize to the population
without random sample and quality
administration of the design (< 60%
response rate on a survey)
GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION
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Sales

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