Endocrine System

 Overview

 Hypothalamus
and pituitary
gland
 Hormones,
receptors and
their actions
– Second
messengers
 Cell-Cell Communication
 Necessary for integration
of body activities
 Mechanisms
– neurotransmitters
 released from neurons to
travel across gap to 2nd cell
– gap junctions
 holes in cell membranes
between cells: links cells
electrically and
metabolically
– paracrine (local) hormones
 secreted into tissue fluids
to affect nearby cells
 Components of Endocrine System
 Endocrine glands
– produce hormones
 Hormone
– chemical messenger
secreted into bloodstream,
stimulates response in
another tissue or organ
 Target cells
– have receptors
for hormone

Endocrine
cell
Endocrine Hormone Blood
tissue
Interstitial
space
Target tissue
 Differences in Nervous and Endocrine
Systems
 Means of communication
– nervous system has both
electrical and chemical
methods
– endocrine system has only
chemical methods
 Speed and persistence of
response
– nervous system reacts quickly
(1 - 10 msec) and stops
quickly
– endocrine system reacts
slowly (hormone release in
seconds or days), effect may
continue for weeks
 Area of effect
– nervous system effects are
targeted and specific (one
organ or tissue)
– endocrine system may have
general, widespread effects on
many organs
 Similarities in Nervous and Endocrine
Systems
 Several chemicals function as both hormones and
neurotransmitters
– norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine
 Some hormones secreted by “neuroendocrine”
cells (neurons)
– oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
 Overlapping effects on same target cells
– norepinephrine and glucagon cause glycogen hydrolysis
in liver
 Systems regulate each other
– neurons trigger hormone secretion
– hormones stimulate or inhibit neurons
Endocrine Organs
 Hypothalamohypophyseal Axis
Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland
 Regulates primitive (Hypophysis)
functions from water  Suspended from
balance to sex drive hypothalamus by stalk
(infundibulum)
 Many functions carried  Posterior and anterior
out by pituitary gland parts
Hypothalamohypophyseal
tract
Hypothalamohypophyseal
portal system
 Hypothalamohypophyseal Portal System

Gonadotropin- releasing hormone

controls FSH + LH release
Thyrotropin- releasing hormone
Corticotropin- releasing hormone
Prolactin- releasing hormone
Prolactin- inhibiting hormone
GH- releasing hormone
Somatostatin

 Hormones secreted by hypothalamus, travel in portal system to anterior pituitary

 Hormones (red box) secreted by anterior pituitary (under control of hypothalamic
releasers and inhibitors)
 Pituitary Hormones - Anterior Lobe
 Tropic hormones target other
endocrine glands
– gonadotropins target gonads, FSH
(follicle stimulating hormone) and
LH (luteinizing hormone)
– TSH (thyroid stimulating
hormone)
– ACTH (adrenocorticotropic
hormone)
 PRL (prolactin)
 GH (growth hormone )
 Pituitary Hormone Actions
Anterior Lobe Hormones
 FSH
– ovaries, stimulates development of eggs and follicles
– testes, stimulates production of sperm
 LH
– females, stimulates ovulation and corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and
estrogen
– males, stimulates interstitial cells of testes to secrete testosterone
 TSH
– stimulates growth of gland and secretion of thyroid hormone (TH)
 ACTH or corticotropin
– regulates response to stress, stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete of
corticosteroids that regulate glucose, fat & protein metabolism
 PRL
– female, milk synthesis after delivery
– male,  LH sensitivity, thus  testosterone secretion
 GH or somatotropin
– promotes tissue growth
 Pituitary Hormones - Posterior Lobe
 Stores and releases
oxytocin and ADH
 ADH
– targets kidneys to 
water retention,
reduce urine
 Oxytocin
– labor contractions,
lactation
– possible role sperm
transport, emotional
bonding
 Hormone Chemistry
 Steroids
– derived from cholesterol
– lipid soluble; water insoluble; hydrophobic
– act via intracellular receptors
– turn on gene transcription
 sex steroids, corticosteroids
 Hormone Chemistry
 Steroids

 Polypeptides and proteins

– small proteins made by
ER/GN
– often processed and
modified
– water soluble; hydrophilic
– act via membrane-bound
receptors
– modify existing metabolic
proteins
 Oxy, ADH; all releasing and
inhibiting hormones of
hypothalamus; most of
anterior pituitary hormones
 Hormone Chemistry
 Steroids
 Polypeptides and proteins

 Monoamines (biogenic
amines)
– derived from amino acids
(usually tyrosine)
– water soluble; hydrophilic
– act via membrane-bound
receptors
– modify existing metabolic
proteins
 catecholamines
(norepinephrine,
epinephrine, dopamine)
and thyroid hormones
 Hormone Transport
 Monoamines and peptides/proteins are hydrophilic so
mix easily with blood plasma – dissolved
 Steroids and thyroid hormone are hydrophobic and
must bind to transport proteins for transport
– bound hormone - hormone attached to transport protein,
(prolongs half-life to weeks, protects from enzymes and
kidney filtration)
– only unbound hormone can leave capillary to reach target
cell (half-life a few minutes)
 Transport proteins in blood plasma
 Hormone Receptors
 Located on plasma
membrane (membrane-
bound) or intracellular
(soluble within cytoplasm
or nucleus)
– sometimes found on the
membrane of mitochondria
and other organelles,
– usually thousands for given
hormone
– turn activities on or off
when hormone binds
 metabolic pathways
 gene expression
 Exhibit specificity and
saturation
Hormone Mode of Action

 Hydrophobic hormones
(steroids and thyroid
hormone) penetrate by
diffusion of the plasma
membrane
– ultimately enter
nucleus
 Hydrophilic hormones
(monoamines and
peptides) can not pass
through membrane so
bind to membrane-
bound receptors
– 2nd messenger
activation
Which is it?
 Receptor Response to Ligand

Change shape, change function

activate internal proteins, enzymes, transcription factors etc
 Membrane Receptor Action
Ion Channel Activation

 Hormone binding to receptor results in

depolarization or hyperpolarization of the membrane
 Membrane Receptor Action
G-protein Activation

 Hormone binding to receptor results in modification

(activation or inhibition) of “downstream” enzymes
and 2nd messenger formation or degradation
 L L

E R*
E R  
 
 GDP

GDP GTP


 
GDP

L L

E* E* R*
R*
 
 
 
GTP GDP GTP
 Second Messengers

 Cyclic nucleotides
(cAMP, cGMP)
 Diacylglycerol (DAG)

 Inositol triphosphate
(IP3)
 Calcium
cAMP as a Second Messenger

1) Hormone binding
activates G protein
2) GP activates adenylate
cyclase
3) AC produces cAMP
4) cAMP activates kinases
5) Kinases activate
enzymes
6) Metabolic reactions:
synthesis, secretion,
degradation, altered
membrane potentials
 Membrane Receptor Action
Enzyme Receptor Activation

 Hormone binding to receptor results in activation of intrinsic

(receptor) enzyme and “downstream” metabolic changes
 Membrane Receptor Action
Intracellular Receptors

 Hormone binding to receptor results in activation of

transcription factors and gene expression
 Summary of Hormonal Actions
Hormone Hormone

Membrane -bound Intracellular

receptor receptor

Receptor linked Receptor linked Receptor linked Activates

to ion channel to G protein to enzyme genes

Opens or closes Activates already Synthesizes

Ion channels existing enzymes enzymes

Cell Response
 Regulation of Hormone Secretion
 Non-hormonal
– Control of release
dependent upon
concentration of other
non-hormonal substance
(i.e., glucose)
 Regulation of Hormone Secretion
 Non-hormonal
 Neuronal
– Secretion or
inhibition of release
influenced by
emotions or stress
 Regulation of Hormone Secretion
 Non-hormonal
 Neuronal
 Hormonal
– Control of release
regulated by
other hormones
 Review questions
1. What are the different methods of cell to cell signaling? Provide an
example of where/when each method occurs.
2. Name and approximately locate the main endocrine glands.
3. Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems.
4. Describe the relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary
gland. What is the tract system? What about the portal system?
5. Which hormones are released from the anterior pituitary and which from
the posterior pituitary? Briefly describe the actions of these hormones on
their targets.
6. What are releasing and inhibiting hormones? Where are they released
from? What is there target (usually)?
7. Compare and contrast the main classes/types of hormones and their
receptors.
8. What different ways do membrane-bound receptors act upon their target
cell? Provide an example of each of these types of activity.
9. Explain how intracellular receptors differ from membrane-bound receptors
(include cellular location and mechanism of action).
10. Briefly summarize the cellular effect of hydrophilic hormone activation and
hydrophobic hormone activation.
11. What are second messengers and why are they important? Be able to
provide at least one example of cAMP acting as a second messenger.
12. How is hormonal release regulated? Provide an example for each way.