STEEL TRUSS,

SB
STEEL BRIDGES
GIRDER, BRIDGES
ARANAS | ELMANN | MACARAIG, JA.
CEE51
 HISTORY STEEL BRIDGE
T h e w o r l d s fi r s t c a s t i r o n b r i d g e w a s b u i l t
a t C o a l b r o o k d a l e , Te l f o r d i n 1 7 7 9 . I t i s
INTRODUCTION s ti l l i n u s e t o d a y c a r r y i n g o c c a s i o n a l l i g h t
STEEL BRIDGES transport and pedestrians.
U n ti l 1 8 4 0 , t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n m a t e r i a l u s e d
was either cast iron or wrought iron or a
c o m b i n a ti o n o f b o t h . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 0 0 s
cast iron was beginning to be replaced by
wrought iron and many of the early
railway bridges were built of riveted
w r o u g h t i r o n c o n s t r u c ti o n . I t w a s n o t u n ti l
the late 1800s that steel began to replace
wrought iron and by the early 1900s
wrought iron was no longer available, as
worldwide, steel makers had moved to
producing carbon steel, a much more
reliable material.
STEEL TRUSS
DEFINITION

• Truss is a structure of connected elements

usually forming triangular units
• Made of individual members with equal
counteracting tensile and compressive
forces
• Its purpose is designed to behave as a single
object which carries/supports a load over a
span
• Interior members further support the loads
through axial tension and compression
resistance
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STEEL GIRDER
DEFINITION

• Steel girders are a type of steel beams.

Girders are collector beams, they are the
main horizontal supports of a structure
which support the smaller beams.
• Essentially, a beam and a girder have the
same function.
• Girders have an I-shaped cross section or
they can be box-shaped or Z-shaped.

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STEEL GIRDER
GIRDER COMPONENTS

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STEEL GIRDER
BOX GI RD ER COM PON EN T TYP ES

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STEEL GIRDER
S T E E L - R .C . CO M P O S I T E B OX- G I R D E R
COMPONENTS

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STEEL BRIDGE
DEFINITION
• Steel bridges are widely used around the world in
different structural forms with different span
length, such as highway bridges, railway bridges,
and footbridges
• Advantages of structural steel: strength, ductility,
easy fabrication, and rapid construction.
• It has a much higher strength in both tension and
compression than concrete, and relatively good
strength to cost ratio and stiffness to weight ratio.
• Steel is a versatile and effective material that
provides efficient and sustainable solutions for
bridge construction, particularly for long span
bridges or bridges requiring enhanced seismic
performance.
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 FR
TYPES PREFABRICATED STEEL BRIDGE SYSTEMS
TEMPORARY BRIDGE EMERGENCY BRIDGE PERMANENT BRIDGE
• As an alternative to costly • are needed from a security • A major objective to
detours, maintenance of standpoint, and due to increase the use of
traffic, and increased traffic man-made non-terrorist prefabricated steel bridges
volume, prefabricated steel hazards like ship impact, as permanent bridges.
bridges are utilized to divert truck impact, fire, and blast.
traffic during bridge repair, Natural disasters such as
rehabilitation, construction, hurricanes, mudslides, fires,
or replacement. and tornados can destroy a
bridge by washout or
collapse.
 FR
CLASSIFICATION of STEEL BRIDGE
BASED ON TYPE OF TRAFFIC CARRIED

• Highway or road bridges

• Railway or rail bridges
• Road – cum – rail bridges
 FR
CLASSIFICATION of STEEL BRIDGE
BASED ON MAIN STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

• Girder Bridges
• Rigid Frame Bridges
• Arch bridges
• Cable stayed
• Suspension bridges
 FR
CLASSIFICATION of STEEL BRIDGE
B A S E D O N P O S I T I O N O F C A R R I A G E W AY

• Deck type bridge - The carriageway

rests on the top of the main load
carrying members.
• Through type bridge - The
carriageway rests at the bottom level
of the main load carrying members.
• Semi through type bridge - The deck
lies in between the top and the
bottom of the main load carrying
members.
 FR
CLASSIFICATION of STEEL BRIDGE
 FR
TYPES of TRUSS
• The pitched truss, or common
truss, is characterized by its
triangular shape. It is most
often used for roof
construction.
• The parallel chord truss, or flat
truss, gets its name from its
parallel top and bottom
chords. It is often used for floor
construction.
 FR
TYPES of TRUSS
 FR
TYPES of TRUSS
 CONSTRUCTION METHOD
To e n s u r e t h a t a s t e e l b r i d g e d e s i g n
c a n b e s a f e l y, e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d
METHOD OF reliably executed (fabricated,
CONSTRUCTION
assembled and erected), designers
should be aware of the processes of
f a b r i c a ti o n and e r e c ti o n , the
c a p a b i l i ti e s a n d l i m i t a ti o n s o f t h e
steelwork contractor and how the
design choices a ff e c t those
processes.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
.

The objectives of ‘design for construction’ are:

• To maximize the efficiency of the construction
process
• To minimize the need for clarification and change
 
Achieving these objectives will reduce costs,
reduce the construction period, enhance quality
and increase the safety of the work.
The activities for the steelwork contractor include
planning, ordering, modelling, fabricating,
assembling, coating and erecting.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
PLANNING
Two basic approaches to design and construction:
• Traditional approach – the Designer makes the structural choices and
the Steelwork Contractor builds to the drawings
• Early contractor involvement (ECI) – The Designer and Steelwork
Contractor liaise at an early stage to optimize the construction process
Constraints
The site can have a considerable influence on the structural form and
how it can be erected. Particular factors include:
• Location of the structure
• Constraints of the site
• Access
• Phasing of the erection
• Availability and size of erection plant
• Requirements for rapid installation, e.g. during possession
• Working over or adjacent to water
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
PLANNING
CDM Regulations (Construction, Design and
Management)
The CDM regulations require everyone involved in the
project to identify hazards early on so that they can be
eliminated or reduced at design stage. It is pointless to
complete a design first and then try to address the risks
associated with the design. By then, all decisions will
have been made and any changes will cost time and
money. Eliminating hazards from the design, so far is
reasonably practicable, will remove the associated risk
and is therefore the best option.
Getting the concept method of erection right at the
commencement of the project is fundamental to the
overall success of the project.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
ORDERING
The most economical way to procure plate and section is
from the mills in sizes to suit the project. Stockholders
charge much more per tonne and the use of stock sizes
will require additional butt welds and more waste. It is
important therefore that the provision of the information
for material ordering is timed to suit the lead times
required by the mills. The information that the steelwork
contractor needs to prepare orders is as follows:
Geometry
-Plan layout
-Levels at bearings
-Final profile of top flange
-Haunch definition (if any)
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
ORDERING
Geometry (con’t…)
-Dead load precamber – total and breakdown
-Camber tolerance (if any)
-Web to flange weld sizes (for shrinkage and camber)
-Orientation of splices and girder ends

Make-up
-Plate and section dimensions
-bolts – quantity, type, diameter, plating
-Shear stud – quantity, length, diameter
 
Specification
-Steel grade for different thicknesses of plate and sections
-Restrictions on butt weld positions (if any)
-Options on geometric tolerances, surface quality, testing, CEV etc (if any)
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
MODELLING THE STRUCTURE

Once the steelwork requirements are fully defined,

the information can be used by the steelwork
contractor to create a two-dimensional or three-
dimensional model of the steelwork using CADCAM
software such as Strucad.
The model can also be used as a ‘virtual trial
erection’ of the steelwork, allowing the steelwork
contractor to look at the steelwork details from any
angle. This is particularly useful when dealing with
complicated details, for example, the ends of tied-
arch bridges, as it enables the steelwork contractor
to check the accessibility of the detail as part of
design development prior to the commencement of
fabrication.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
FA B R I C AT I N G T H E S T E E LW O R K
The principal activities at the fabrication works are:
• Pre-assembly butt welding
• Cutting and profiling
• Drilling and edge preparation
• Assembly
• Welding
• Fitting of stiffeners
• Shear connectors
• Trial erection (rarely carried out)
• Coating application
 FR
CONSTRUCTION METHODS STEELWORK FABRICATION
PRE-ASSEMBLY BUTT WELDING

The steelwork contractor usually butt welds

the flanges and web plates to full length in the
shop before assembly of the girder. This
means that such shop joints can be in
different positions in the two flanges and do
not have to line up with any shop joint in the
web. If possible, the full width of plate
supplied (from which several components will
be cut) will be butt welded, as this will reduce
the number of run-on/run-off plates and
minimise butt weld testing requirements.
 FR
CONSTRUCTION METHODS STEELWORK FABRICATION
Flame
CUTTINGor ANDplasma
DRILLINGcutting equipment is used to cut
flanges to length and width, webs to profile and camber,
and stiffeners to shape. Plates up to 35 mm thick can be
profiled using plasma cutting equipment. Plates greater
than 35 mm thick will usually be cut using oxy-propane,
which is safer than using oxy-acetylene.
In addition to the geometric requirements of plan
curvature and precamber defined by the designer, the
steelwork contractor will also take into account the
allowances required for thermal cutting, and shrinkage
such that the final girder geometry matches that
required.
Some plate cutting machines also have the ability to
mark stiffener positions on web and flange plates, and
drill bolt holes for splice connections. Otherwise, the cut
plates are hand marked and drilled later.
 FR
CONSTRUCTION METHODS STEELWORK FABRICATION
ASSEMBLY
The ability of a steelwork contractor to use his
automated equipment to fabricate steelwork
can greatly reduce fabrication costs and
improve the quality of the finished product. This
is probably most important in the assembly of
flat plates into fabricated components.
On particularly complex fabrications, a designer
is very unlikely to produce the most cost
effective detail without the input of the
steelwork contractor who will be carrying out
the work. It is useful to bear in mind that
different steelwork contractors have different
equipment, and therefore different capabilities.
 FR
CONSTRUCTION METHODS STEELWORK FABRICATION
WELDING

Section Stiffening
 FR
CONSTRUCTION METHODS STEELWORK FABRICATION
STIFFENERS AND BRACING

Post-fabrication
welded splice
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
D E TA I L I N G F O R A S S E M B LY

The assembly of steelwork can have a

considerable influence on the detailing of
steelwork. For example, bolts should not be
positioned within 100 mm of the face of a girder
web or stiffener to enable them to be tightened
using standard equipment. Special consideration
should also be given when attaching bracing
members to skewed stiffeners, as access for
tightening equipment to the back of the stiffener
will be limited.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
A C C E S S F O R PA I N T I N G

Designers should consider the access required to

apply protective treatment to all areas of
exposed steelwork where required. This can
often be an issue at the ends of skewed bridges,
where a combination of skewed bearing / bracing
stiffeners and square end plates / jacking
stiffeners can produce semi-enclosed steelwork
which is difficult to access for painting.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
T R A N S P O R TAT I O N

To maximize the amount of work carried out within the

fabrication works, thus achieving the highest quality,
the steel structure is fabricated in pieces as large as can
reasonably be transported to site. The designer should
anticipate how the structure will be split into separate
components for delivery to site, particularly in
considering member sizes and splice positions.
Access to the site and positioning of the erection plant
has to be planned and sequenced to ensure that
disruption to adjacent services / infrastructure is
minimized. Access onto site has to be coordinated with
the traffic management scheme to ensure that
craneage and steelwork can be brought onto site and
mobilized with minimum disruption.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
BRIDGE ERECTION

Methods of erecting steel bridge structures vary

considerably from site to site and from project to
project. The subject of erection aspects is
therefore a wide and varied subject. This section
focuses on the aspects that should be considered
during the initial design and detailed design
phases.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
BRIDGE ERECTION

- Installation of bearings
The first pieces of steelwork to be erected on site are
the bridge bearings. The function of a bearing is to
transfer weight of the superstructure to the
substructure. They may also transfer transverse and
longitudinal forces. They carry large forces but can be
easily damaged by inappropriate handling or
installation.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
BRIDGE ERECTION
- Erection using cranes
Erection using cranes is considered the most cost effective erection
method for the majority of structures. However, note that only
crawler cranes and some small rough terrain mobile cranes are able
to traverse the site with a load. The site areas adjacent to the bridge
will affect the position and size of crane that can be used and this
will affect capacity of lift and therefore choice of crane and the piece
size. The area for preassembly will also influence lift size.
 - Specialist Transport
Where lifting into position is not suitable, for example when there is
a lack of space for a crane or there are overhead cables in the
vicinity, one option is to assemble steelwork at low level away from
(but close to) the actual bridge site. The assembled steelwork is
then jacked up to allow specialist transportation units beneath the
deck. The units are then used to transport the deck into position.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
BRIDGE ERECTION

- Launching
The steelwork is assembled on low resistance
rollers or a sliding system at each pier or
temporary support. A haulage and restraint
system is used. The steelwork requires plenty of
construction alignment to ensure adequate fit up
prior to launching and needs to have sufficient
time in the program to allow for this. However,
assembly is normally near ground level, with the
use of much smaller and less expensive cranes
and minimum work at height.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
BRIDGE ERECTION
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
BRIDGE ERECTION

- Erection during possessions

The requirement to maintain traffic flow, whether road, rail
or water, may severely limit the duration of erection
operations. In such cases erection has to take place within a
fixed or defined “possession” period.
- Influence of erection durations
Erection durations are generally dictated by the:
1. Client’s program,
2. Features of the site; and the
3. Principal contractor’s program
Site erection durations control the balance between pre-
assembly in the fabrication yard or on site adjacent to the
proposed bridge, and the elements of the structure that can
be erected directly off the transport.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
BRIDGE ERECTION
- Stability during erection
The efficient design of plate girders with a number of
parallel steel plate girders using composite construction
tends to produce small top flanges. This makes them prone
to lateral torsional buckling during construction, before the
slab has hardened. There is also a risk of instability during
handling, delivery and exposure to high winds. Hence,
designers should consider slenderness in the various
erection conditions.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
DECK CONSTRUCTION

Pre assembly for composite construction can be used to

fit critical falsework and formwork, temporary and
permanent walkways and edge protection, before lifting
the bridge section into place. The advantage of this is
two-fold. The formwork can be fitted at low level, which
is inherently safer, and it also eliminates this operation
from the critical path. The formwork would otherwise be
fitted after completion of the erection.
Falsework - defined as any temporary construction used
to support vertical loads for a structure until it becomes
self-supporting.
Formwork - temporary structure or mold used to retain
plastic or fluid concrete in its designated shape until it
hardens.
 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
The steel bridges are generally very
durable if properly maintained. The
PROBLEMS primary causes of metal bridge
ENCOUNTERED
d e t e r i o r a ti o n i n c l u d e t h e c o r r o s i o n ,
f a ti g u e , l a r g e d e f o r m a ti o n s , a n d
r e l a x a ti o n a n d d r o p o ff o f h i g h
strength bolt.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
CORROSION

Corrosion is a common problem for steel

bridges, and it is the gradual destruction of
steel by chemical reaction with their
environment. Corrosion will lead to the loss of
the effective materials and reduction of the
steel thickness, thus results in the decrease of
the stiffness and increase of the structural
deformation. In bridge structures, the
corrosion is likely to happen at the girder end
where water may come from the expansion
joint, the top of the bottom flange where soil
and dust are easy to accumulate, the bearing
surroundings, and connections or joints.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
FAT I G U E

Fatigue can be defined as the weakening of

steel materials or accumulation of damage at
a localized region caused by cyclic loading or
repeatedly applied loads. On this occasion, the
material may damage when the nominal
maximum stress is still much less than the
material strength determined from the
material tests. When the material is subjected
to the repeated loading above a certain
threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to
occur at locations in stress concentration.
Then the crack will propagate suddenly
causing the fracture of the steel members.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
L A R G E D E F O R M AT I O N

The large deformations in steel bridges may

happen due to the out-of-plane deformation
or buckling of steel members caused by the
local stress concentration, overlarge external
load, impact, or seismic load. The web
without sufficient stiffeners and slender
secondary members is vulnerable to such
damages.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
R E L A X AT I O N A N D D R O P O F F O F H I G H S T R E N G T H B O LT

High strength bolts located at the girder end

and interconnecting section of bottom
flange are easy to suffer such damages due
to the water-induced corrosion. Relaxation
of high strength bolt may occur on members
subjected to vibration loading, or due to the
inadequate tightening force during
construction.
 PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
IN STEEL BRIDGE
PREVENTATIVE P r o t e c ti v e treatment is usually
MAINTENANCE
c a r r i e d o u t a ft e r a l l t h e f a b r i c a ti o n
a c ti v i ti e s h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d b u t
before any bolted components have
been assembled. As well as the
s p e c i fi c a ti o n o f w h a t i s t o b e
protected, i n f o r m a ti o n must be
clearly given about which surfaces
are not to be protected at this stage.
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
IN STEEL BRIDGES
1. General: Remove brush and vegetation around structure.
Annually.
2. Bridge Deck & Sidewalks: Sweep clean sand and other debris.
Power wash with water to remove salt residue. Annually.
3. Wearing Surface: Check for excessive cracking and
deterioration. Annually.
4. Expansion Joint: Power wash with water to remove debris, sand
and salt residue. Annually.
5. Bolted Connections: Inspect for excessive corrosion or cracking
of the steel fasteners. Check for any loose or missing bolts.
Annually.
6. Welded Connections: Check for cracking in the welds. Annually.
7. Truss Members: Power wash with water to remove sand, salt
and debris, particularly along the bottom chord. Give specific
attention to debris accumulation within partially enclosed
locations such as truss panel point connections or tubular
members. Annually.
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
IN STEEL BRIDGES
8. Bridge Seats: Clean around bearings by flushing with water or
air blast cleaning. Annually.
9. NBIS Inspection: Complete inspection of all components of the
steel truss bridge. Every 2 years unless on Red List.
10. Painted Steel: Scrape or wire brush clean, prime and paint
isolated areas of rusted steel. Every 2 to 4 years.
11. Steel Members: Check for rust, other deterioration or distortion
around rivets and bolts, and elements that come in contact with
the bridge deck which may be susceptible to corrosion from
roadway moisture and de-icing agents. Every 3 to 5 years.
12. Bearings: Remove debris that may cause the bearings to lock
and become incapable of movement. Check anchor bolts for
damage and determine if they are secure. Every 3 to 5 years.
13. Exposed Concrete Surfaces: Apply silane/siloxane sealers after
cleaning and drying concrete surfaces. Every 4 years.
14. Bridge & Approach Rail: Inspect for damage, loose or missing
bolts, sharp edges or protrusions. Every 5 years.
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
IN STEEL BRIDGES

Actions to Avoid
• Do not bolt or weld to the structural steel
members.
• Do not remove any portion of the
structure.
• CAUTION! Paint may contain lead.
AYALA BRIDGE PASIG RIVER
BUNTUN BRIDGE CAGAYAN
SAN JUANICO BRIDGE LEYTE
SYDNEY HARBOUR BRIDGE SYDNEY,
AUSTRALIA
IKITSUKI BRIDGE NAGASAKI, JAPAN
END OF REPORT THANK YOU