DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

BEVEL, WORM AND CROSS HELICAL GEARS

Common terms used:

1. Pitch cone. It is a cone containing the pitch elements of the teeth.

2.Cone centre. It is the apex of the pitch cone. It may be defined as that point where the axes
of two mating gears intersect each other.

3. Pitch angle. It is the angle made by the pitch line with the axis of the shaft. It is denoted by
‘θP’.

4. Cone distance. It is the length of the pitch cone element. It is also called as a pitch cone
radius. It is denoted by ‘OP’. Mathematically, cone distance or pitch cone radius,
/
OP = = / =

5.Addendum angle. It is the angle subtended by the addendum of the tooth at the cone
centre. It is denoted by ‘α’ Mathematically, addendum angle,

α = tan–1 (a/OP)

where a = Addendum, and OP = Cone distance.

6. Dedendum angle. It is the angle subtended by the

dedendum of the tooth at the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘β’. Mathematically,
dedendum angle,

β = tan–1 (d/OP)

where d = Dedendum, and OP = Cone distance.

7. Face angle. It is the angle subtended by the face of the

tooth at the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘φ’. The face angle is equal to the pitch angle
plus addendum angle.

8. Root angle. It is the angle subtended by the root of the

tooth at the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘θR’. It is equal to the pitch angle minus
dedendum angle.

9. Back (or normal) cone. It is an imaginary cone, perpendicular

to the pitch cone at the end of the tooth.

10. Back cone distance. It is the length of the back cone. It is denoted by ‘RB’. It is also
called back cone radius.

11. Backing. It is the distance of the pitch point (P) from the back of the boss, parallel to the
pitch point of the gear. It is denoted by ‘B’.

12.Crown height. It is the distance of the crown point (C) from the cone centre (O), parallel
to the axis of the gear. It is denoted by ‘HC’. 1
 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

13. Mounting height. It is the distance of the back of the boss from the cone centre. It is
denoted by ‘HM’.

14. Pitch diameter. It is the diameter of the largest pitch circle.

15.Outside or addendum cone diameter. It is the maximum diameter of the teeth of the
gear. It is equal to the diameter of the blank from which the gear can be cut. Mathematically,
outside diameter,

DO = DP + 2 a cos θP

where DP = Pitch circle diameter,

a = Addendum, and

θP = Pitch angle.

16.Inside or dedendum cone diameter. The inside or the dedendum cone diameter is given
by

Dd = DP – 2d cos θP

where Dd = Inside diameter, and

d = Dedendum.

Design procedure for Bevel Gear

17. Calculation of gear ratio (i) and p itch angle:

i= =

where, NA and NB = speed of the driver and driven respectively, and ZA

and ZB = Number of teeth on driver and driven respectively.

18. Selection of material

Consulting Table 5.3, knowing the gear ratio i, choose the suitable
material.

19. If not given, assume gear life (say 20000 hrs)

20. Calculation of initial design torque:

[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd
where, [Mt] = transmission torque
K = Load factor, Table 5.11
Kd = Dynamic load factor, Table 5.12

Assume K. Kd = 1.3 ( if not given)

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

21. Calculation of Eeq, [ϭb] and [ϭc]:

 From table 5.20 Calculate Eeq

 Calculate Design bending stress [ϭb]

[ϭb] = (1.4 Kbl/n.Kσ) σ-1, for one rotation

[ϭb] = (Kbl/n.Kσ) σ-1, for both rotation

 Calculate Design contact stress [ϭc] by

[ϭc] = CB . HB. Kcl (or)

where, CB CR = Coefficient of surface hardness from table 5.18

[ϭc] = CR . HRC. Kcl
HB HRC = Hardness number

22. Calculation if cone distance (a):

. [
R ≥ ѱy ( + 3 ]
× ]
1) [ .) [

ѱy= R/b from table 5.21

23. Select number of teeth on gear and pinion:
 On pinion, Z1 = Assume 18
 On gear, Z2 = i X Z1

24. Calculation of module:

m=
( )

Choose standard module from table 5.8

25. Revision of cone distance (m):

R = 0.5mt √ 1 +

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

26. Calculate b, d1av, v and ѱy :

 Calculate face width, b = R/ѱy

 Calculate pitch dia, d1av

= mav.z1

 Calculate pitch line velocity, v = (πd1avN1)/60

 Calculate value of ѱp = b /d1av

27. Selection of quality of gear:

Knowing the pitch line velocity and acosulting table 5.22, select a suitable quality
of gear.

28. Revision of design torque

[Mt]: Revise K:
Using the calculated
value of ѱ y revise the
K value by using
table 5.11

Revise Kd:
Using the selected
quality if gear and
pitch line velocity,
revise the Kd
value.
(
[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd [
Ϭb = ( . )) .
. . ]
29. Check for bending:
Calculate Ϭ
 Compare b and [Ϭb].
induced
 If Ϭ b ≤ [Ϭ
bending stress,
b], then design is safe.

30. Check for wear strength:

Calculate induced contact stres s,

. (
) [ ]
Ϭc = ( .
 Compare Ϭc and [Ϭc]. )
 If Ϭc ≤ [Ϭc], then design is safe.

31. If the design is not satisfactory (ϭb > [ϭb] and / or ϭc > [ϭc] ), then increase hte
module of face width value of the gear material.

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

32. Check for gear:

e. Check for bending:
Using Ϭb1.y1 and Ϭb1.y1,
.
Ϭ
b2 =

 Compare Ϭb2 and [Ϭb2].

 If Ϭb2 ≤ [Ϭb2], then design is safe.

f. Check for wear strength:

Calculate induced contact stress will be same for pinion and gear,
So,
Ϭc2 = Ϭc

 Compare Ϭc and [Ϭc]

 If Ϭc ≤ [Ϭc], then design is safe

WORM GEAR

Common terms used :

The following terms, in connection with the worm gearing, are important from the
subject point of view :

33. Axial pitch. It is also known as linear pitch of a worm. It is the distance measured
axially (i.e. parallel to the axis of worm) from a point on one thread to the corresponding
point on the adjacent thread on the worm, as shown in Fig. 31.3. It may be noted that the
axial pitch (pa) of a worm is equal to the circular pitch ( pc ) of the mating worm gear, when
the shafts are at right angles.

34. Lead. It is the linear distance through which a point on a thread moves ahead in one
revolution of the worm. For single start threads, lead is equal to the axial pitch, but for
multiple start threads, lead is equal to the product of axial pitch and number of starts.
Mathematically,

Lead, l = pa . n

where pa = Axial pitch ; and

n = Number of starts.

3. Lead angle. It is the angle between the tangent to the thread helix on the pitch cylinder and
the plane normal to the axis of the worm. It is denoted by λ.

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

A little consideration will show that if one complete turn of a worm thread be imagined to be
unwound from the body of the worm, it will form an inclined plane whose base is equal to the
pitch circumference of the worm and altitude equal to lead of the worm.

tan λ = Lead of the worm / Pitch circumference of the worm

.
=

where m = Module, and

DW = Pitch circle diameter of worm.

The lead angle (λ) may vary from 9° to 45°. It has been shown by F.A. Halsey that a lead
angle less than 9° results in rapid wear and the safe value of λ is 12½°.

4. Tooth pressure angle. It is measured in a plane containing the axis of the worm and is
equal to one-half the thread profile angle as shown in Fig. Normal pitch. It is the distance
measured along the normal to the threads between two corresponding points on two adjacent
threads of the worm.

Mathematically,

Normal pitch, pN = pa.cos λ

Note. The term normal pitch is used for a worm having single start threads. In case of a worm
having multiple start threads, the term normal lead (l N) is used, such that

lN = l . cos λ

6.Helix angle. It is the angle between the tangent to the thread helix on the pitch cylinder and
the axis of the worm. It is denoted by αW,. The worm helix angle is the complement of worm
lead angle, i.e.

αW + λ = 90°

It may be noted that the helix angle on the worm is generally quite large and that on the worm
gear is very small. Thus, it is usual to specify the lead angle (λ) on the worm and helix angle
(αG) on the worm gear. These two angles are equal for a 90° shaft angle.

7.Velocity ratio. It is the ratio of the speed of worm (NW) in r.p.m. to the speed of the worm
gear (NG) in r.p.m. Mathematically, velocity ratio,

V.R. = Nw / NG

Let l = Lead of the worm, and

DG =
Pitch circle diameter of the
worm gear.

We know that linear

velocity of the worm,
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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

vW = l . NW/60

where n = Number of starts of the worm.

DESIGN
PROCEDURE
FOR WORM
GEAR:

1. Selection of the material:

2. Calculation of teeth:

 Assume Z1 depending upon

the number of stat.
 Z2 = i X Z1

3. Calculation of diameter factor and

lead angle

q = d1/mx

If not given assume q= 11

ɤ = tan-1 (z1/q)

4. Calculation of Tangential load:

Ft = (p/v) x K0

5. Calculation of Dynamic load:

Fd = Ft / cv

6. Calculation of Beam strength:

Fs = π mx b [ϭb] y

7. Calculation of Axial load:

Calculate axial load by
equating Fd and Fs

8. Calculate b, d2, v.

9. Recalculation of beam strength

Fs = π mx b [ϭb] y1
7
10. Recalculation of dynamic load
 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

11. Check for beam strength:

If Fd ≤ Fd, design is satisfactory.

12. Calculation for maximum wear load:

Fw = d2. b . Kw

13. Check for wear strength:

If Fd ≤ Fw, design is satisfactory.

14. Calculate power loss and area:

15. Calculate basic dimensions.

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

DESIGN OF CAM CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

Introduction

A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that
the driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. The use
of a clutch is mostly found in automobiles. A little consideration will show that in order to
change gears or to stop the vehicle, it is required that the driven shaft should stop, but the
engine should continue to run. It is, therefore, necessary that the driven shaft should be
disengaged from the driving shaft. The engagement and disengagement of the shafts is
obtained by means of a clutch which is operated by a lever.

Types of Clutches

Following are the two main types of clutches commonly used in engineering practice :

1. Positive clutches, and

2. Friction clutches

Positive Clutches

The positive clutches are used when a positive drive is required. The simplest type of
a positive clutch is a jaw or claw clutch. The jaw clutch permits one shaft to drive another
through a direct contact of interlocking jaws. It consists of two halves, one of which is
permanently fastened to the driving shaft by a sunk key. The other half of the clutch is
movable and it is free to slide axially on the driven shaft, but it is prevented from turning
relatively to its shaft by means of feather key. A square jaw type is used where engagement
and disengagement in motion and under load is not necessary. This type of clutch will
transmit power in either direction of rotation. The spiral jaws may be left-hand or right-hand,
because power transmitted by them is in one direction only. This type of clutch is
occasionally used where the clutch must be engaged and disengaged while in motion. The use
of jaw clutches are frequently applied to sprocket wheels, gears and pulleys. In such a case,
the non-sliding part is made integral with the hub.

Friction Clutches

A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts
and machines which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in
cases in which power is to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of
friction is used to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper
speed without excessive slipping of the friction surfaces. In automobiles, friction clutch is
used to connect the engine to the drive shaft. In operating such a clutch, care should be taken
so that the friction surfaces engage easily and gradually bring the driven shaft up to proper
speed. The proper alignment of the bearing must be maintained and it should be located as
close to the clutch as possible. It may be noted that :

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

1.The contact surfaces should develop a frictional force that may pick up and hold the
load with reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces.

2. The heat of friction should be rapidly

3.The surfaces should be backed by a material stiff enough to ensure a reasonably

uniform distribution of pressure.

Material for Friction Surfaces

The material used for lining of friction surfaces of a clutch should have the following
characteristics:

1. It should have a high and uniform coefficient of friction.

2. It should not be affected by moisture and oil.

3. It should have the ability to withstand high temperatures caused by slippage.

4. It should have high heat conductivity.

5. It should have high resistance to wear and scoring.

DESIGN OF A DISC OR PLATE CLUTCH

Consider two friction surfaces maintained in contact by an axial thrust (W) .Forces on
a disc clutch.

Let T = Torque transmitted by the clutch,

p = Intensity of axial pressure with which the contact surfaces

are held together,

r1 and r2 = External and internal radii of friction faces,

r = Mean radius of the friction face, and

μ = Coefficient of friction.

Consider an elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr

We know that area of the contact surface or friction surface =

2π r.dr

∴ Normal or axial force on the ring,

δW = Pressure × Area = p × 2π r.dr

and the frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Fr = μ × δW = μ.p × 2π r.dr

∴ Frictional torque acting on the ring,

Tr = Fr × r = μ.p × 2π r.dr × r = 2 π μ p. r2.dr

We shall now consider the following two cases :

1. When there is a uniform pressure, and

2. When there is a uniform axial wear.

1. Considering uniform pressure. When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the entire

area of the friction face then the intensity of pressure,

p = W / π – [(r1)2 - (r2)2]

where W = Axial thrust with which the friction surfaces are held together.

We have discussed above that the frictional torque on the elementary ring of radius r and
thickness dr is

Tr = 2π μ.p.r2.dr

Integrating this equation within the limits from r2 to r1 for the total friction torque.

∴ Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface or on the clutch,

R=

2. Considering uniform axial wear. The basic principle in designing machine parts that are
subjected to wear due to sliding friction is that the normal wear is proportional to the work of
friction. The work of friction is proportional to the product of normal pressure ( p) and the
sliding velocity (V). Therefore,

Normal wear ∝ Work of friction ∝ p.V

or p.V = K (a constant) or p = K/V ...(i)

It may be noted that when the friction surface is new, there is a uniform pressure
distribution over the entire contact surface. This pressure will wear most rapidly where the
sliding velocity is maximum and this will reduce the pressure between the friction surfaces.

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

This wearing-in process continues until the product p.V is constant over the entire surface.
After this, the wear will be uniform.

Let p be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the axis of the clutch.
Since the intensity of pressure varies inversely with the distance, therefore

p.r = C (a constant) or p = C/r ...(ii)

and the normal force on the ring,

δW = p.2πr.dr

= (C/r) 2π r dr

= 2πC.dr

∴ Total force acing on the friction surface,

R = (r1 + r2)/2 = Mean radius of the friction surface.

BRAKE
Introduction

A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a

moving machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a machine. In the process of
performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving member or
potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc.

The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is dissipated
in the surrounding air (or water which is circulated through the passages in the brake drum) so
that excessive heating of the brake lining does not take place. The design or capacity of a
brake depends upon the following factors :

1. The unit pressure between the braking surfaces,

2. The coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces,

3. The peripheral velocity of the brake drum

4. The projected area of the friction surfaces, and

5. The ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being absorbed.

The major functional difference between a clutch and a brake is that a clutch is used to
keep the driving and driven member moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a
moving member or to control its speed.

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Energy Absorbed by a Brake

The energy absorbed by a brake depends upon the type of motion of the moving body. The
motion of a body may be either pure translation or pure rotation or a combination of both
translation and rotation. The energy corresponding to these motions is kinetic energy. Let us
consider these motions as follows :

1. When the motion of the body is pure translation. Consider a body of mass (m)
moving with a velocity v1 m / s. Let its velocity is reduced to v2 m / s by applying the brake.
Therefore, the change in kinetic energy of the translating body or kinetic energy of
translation,

E1 = (1/2) m [(v1)2 - (v2)2]

This energy must be absorbed by the brake. If the moving body is stopped after
applying the brakes, then v2 = 0, and

E1 = (1/2) m (v1)2

2.When the motion of the body is pure rotation. Consider a body of mass moment of
inertia I (about a given axis) is rotating about that axis with an angular velocity ω1 rad / s. Let
its angular velocity is reduced to ω2 rad / s after applying the brake. Therefore, the change in
kinetic energy of the rotating body or kinetic energy of rotation,

E2 = (1/2) I [(ω1)2 - (ω2)2]

This energy must be absorbed by the brake. If the rotating body is stopped after
applying the brakes, then ω2 = 0, and

E1 = (1/2) I (ω1)2

3.When the motion of the body is a combination of translation and rotation. Consider
a body having both linear and angular motions, e.g. in the locomotive driving wheels and
wheels of a moving car. In such cases, the total kinetic energy of the body is equal to the sum
of the kinetic energies of translation and rotation.

∴ Total kinetic energy to be absorbed by the brake,

E = E1 + E2

Sometimes, the brake has to absorb the potential energy given up by objects being
lowered by hoists, elevators etc. Consider a body of mass m is being lowered from a height
h1 to h2 by applying the brake. Therefore the change in potential energy,

E3 = m.g (h1 – h2)

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Heat to be Dissipated during Braking

The energy absorbed by the brake and transformed into heat must be dissipated to the
surrounding air in order to avoid excessive temperature rise of the brake lining. The upon the
mass of the brake drum, the braking time and the heat dissipation capacity of the brake. The
highest permissible temperatures recommended for different brake lining materials are given
as follows :

1. For leather, fibre and wood facing = 65 – 70°C

2. For asbestos and metal surfaces that are slightly lubricated = 90 – 105°C

3. For automobile brakes with asbestos block lining = 180 – 225°C

Since the energy absorbed (or heat generated) and the rate of wear of the brake lining
at a particular speed are dependent on the normal pressure between the braking surfaces,
therefore it is an important factor in the design of brakes. The permissible normal pressure
between the braking surfaces depends upon the material of the brake lining, the coefficient of
friction and the maximum rate at which the energy is to be absorbed. The energy absorbed or
the heat generated is given by

E = Hg = μ.RN.v

= μ.p.A.v (in J/s or watts) ...(i)

where μ = Coefficient of friction,

RN = Normal force acting at the contact surfaces, in newtons,

p = Normal pressure between the braking surfaces in N/m2,

A = Projected area of the contact surfaces in

m2, and v = Peripheral velocity of the brake drum in

m/s.
The heat generated may also be obtained by considering the amount of kinetic or
potential energies which is being absorbed. In other words,

Hg = EK + EP

where EK = Total kinetic energy absorbed, and

EP = Total potential energy absorbed.

The heat dissipated (Hd) may be estimated by

Hd = C (t1 – t2) Ar ...(ii)

where C = Heat dissipation factor or coefficient

of heat transfer in W /m2 / °C

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 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

t1 – t2 = Temperature difference between the exposed radiating surface and the

surrounding air in °C, and

Ar = Area of radiating surface in m2.

The value of C may be of the order of 29.5 W / m2 /°C for a temperature difference of
40°C and increase up to 44 W/m2/°C for a temperature difference of 200°C.

The expressions for the heat dissipated are quite approximate and should serve only as
an indication of the capacity of the brake to dissipate heat. The exact performance of the
brake should be determined by test.

It has been found that 10 to 25 per cent of the heat generated is immediately dissipated
to the surrounding air while the remaining heat is absorbed by the brake drum causing its
temperature to rise. The rise in temperature of the brake drum is given by

Δ t = Hg / (m.c) ...(iii)

where Δ t = Temperature rise of the brake

drum in °C

Hg = Heat generated by the brake in

joules, m = Mass of the brake drum in kg,

and
c = Specific heat for the material of
the brake drum in J/kg °C.

In brakes, it is very difficult to precisely calculate the temperature rise. In preliminary

design analysis, the product p.v is considered in place of temperature rise. The experience has
also shown that if the product p.v is high, the rate of wear of brake lining will be high and the
brake life will be low. Thus the value of p.v should be lower than the upper limit value for the
brake lining to have reasonable wear life. The following table shows the recommended values
of p.v as suggested by various designers for different types of service.

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