CIEN 3144 Structural Theory 1

STRUCTURAL THEORY 1
1. Types of Structures and Loads

 Introduction
 Classification of Structures
 Loads
 Structural Design
2. Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures

 Idealized Structure
 Determinacy and Stability
 Equations of Equilibrium
 Application of the Equations of Static Equilibrium
CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

STRUCTURAL THEORY 1
3. Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses

 Common Types of Trusses
 Classification of Coplanar Trusses
 The Method of Joints
 Zero-Force Members
 The Method of Sections
 Compound Trusses
 Complex Trusses
 Space Trusses

STRUCTURAL THEORY 1
4. Internal Loadings Developed in Structural Members

 Internal Loadings at a Specified Point
 Shear and Moment Functions
 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam
 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Frame
 Moment Diagrams Constructed by the Method of Superposition
5. Cables and Arches

 Cables Subjected to Concentrated Loads
 Cables Subjected to a Uniform Distributed Load
 Three-Hinged Arches

STRUCTURAL THEORY 1
6. Influence Lines for Statically Determinate Structures

 Influence Lines
 Influence Lines for Beams
 Influence Lines for Trusses
 Maximum Influence at a Point due to a Series of Concentrated Loads

1. TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

 INTRODUCTION
Structure - a system of connected parts used to support a load.
Important examples: Important to account:

‣ Buildings ‣ Safety
‣ Bridges ‣ Esthetics
‣ Towers ‣ Serviceability
‣ Economic constraints
‣ Environmental
constraints

 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Structural Elements
TIE RODS
- structural members subjected to tensile force
rod bar
angle channel

Structural Elements
TIE RODS
- structural members subjected to tensile force

Structural Elements
BEAMS
- usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical
loads
simply supported beam cantilever beam
fixed-supported beam continuous beam

Structural Elements
BEAMS
- usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical
loads

Structural Elements
COLUMNS
- members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive
loads (and bending)

Structural Elements
COLUMNS
- members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive
loads (and bending)

Types of Structures
TRUSS
- structures that consist of two-force members only, where the
members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves
as a single object.
compression
tension

Types of Structures
TRUSS
- structures that consist of two-force members only, where the
members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves
as a single object.

Types of Structures
CABLES
- structures that are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.
Unlike tension ties, however, the external load is not applied along
the axis of the cable, and consequently the cable takes a form that
has a defined sag.

Types of Structures
CABLES
- structures that are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.
Unlike tension ties, however, the external load us not applied along
the axis of the cable, and consequently the cable takes a form that
has a defined sag.

Types of Structures
ARCHES
- structures that achieve its strength in compression. Arches must be
rigid, however, in order to maintain their shape, and this results in
secondary loadings involving shear and moment.

Types of Structures
ARCHES
- structures that achieve its strength in compression. Arches must be
rigid, however, in order to maintain their shape, and this results in
secondary loadings involving shear and moment.

Types of Structures
FRAMES
- often used in buildings and re composed of beams and columns that
are either pin or fixed connected.

Types of Structures
FRAMES
- often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns
that are either pin or fixed connected.

Types of Structures
SURFACE STRUCTURE
- made from a material having very small thickness compared to its
other dimensions.

 LOADS
Design Codes
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) 2015

Volume I – Buildings, Towers, and Other Vertical Structures
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)

Volume II – Bridges
DPWH Design Guidelines, Criteria, and Standards 2015

Volume 5 – Bridge Design
Volume 6 – Public Buildings and Other Related Structures

 LOADS
Dead Loads
Dead loads consists of the weights of the various structural members

and the weight of any objects that are permanently attached to the
structure.

 LOADS
Dead Loads

 LOADS
Dead Loads

 LOADS
Sample Problem No. 1
A floor beam is used to support the 1.83 m width of a lightweight plain

concrete slab having a thickness of 102 mm. The slab serves as a
portion of the ceiling for the floor below, and therefore its bottom is
coated with plaster. Furthermore, a 2.44-m high, 305-mm thick
lightweight solid concrete block wall is directly over the top flange of
the beam. Determine the loading on the beam measured per meter
length of the beam.

 LOADS
Live Loads
Live loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be
caused by the weight of objects temporarily placed on a structure,
moving vehicles, or natural forces.

 LOADS
Wind Loads
When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy of pressure, which causes a wind
loading.

 LOADS
Wind Loads

 LOADS
Earthquake Loads
Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction

with the ground and its response characteristics. These loadings result
from the structure’s distortion caused by the ground’s motion and the
lateral resistance of the structure.

 LOADS
Earthquake Loads

 LOADS
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials,

the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important
criterion for their designs.

 LOADS
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials,

the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important
criterion for their designs.

 LOADS
Other Natural Loads
Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the
design of a structure, depending on its location or use. These include
the effect of blast, temperature changes, and differential settlement of
the foundation.

 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Load Combinations
Whenever a structure is designed, it is important to give consideration

to both material and load uncertainties.

2. ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY
DETERMINATE STRUCTURES

 IDEALIZED STRUCTURES
Support Connections
IDEALIZED MODELS
typical “pin-supported” typical “fixed-supported”

connection detail connection detail

Support Connections
IDEALIZED MODELS
typical “roller-supported” typical “fixed-supported”

connection detail connection detail

Support Connections
IDEALIZED MODELS
pin support pin-connected joint fixed support fixed-connected joint
torsional spring support torsional spring joint

Support Connections
IDEALIZED MODELS
P
P
L/2 L/2
L/2 L/2
actual beam idealized beam

Support Connections
SUPPORTS FOR COPLANAR STRUCTURES
Type of Connection Idealized Symbol Reaction
(1) light cable
(2)
rollers
rocker

Support Connections
light cables
rollers & rocker

Support Connections
(3) smooth contact surface
(4) smooth pin-connected collar

Support Connections
(5) smooth pin or hinge
(6) fixed support

Support Connections
smooth pin or hinge fixed support

Support Connections
(7)
slider
fixed-connected
collar

Support Connections
fixed-connected collar

Idealized Structure
IDEALIZED MODELS

Idealized Structure
IDEALIZED MODELS

Idealized Structure
IDEALIZED MODELS

Idealized Structure
IDEALIZED MODELS

Tributary Loadings
ONE-WAY SYSTEM
4.8 kN/m2
3m 1.5m
1.5m

Tributary Loadings
TWO-WAY SYSTEM
4.8 kN/m2
3m
3m

 DETERMINACY AND STABILITY
Determinacy
The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and sufficient

conditions for equilibrium.
r = 3n, statically determinate

r > 3n, statically indeterminate
where:
r = number of force and moment reactions
n = number of parts

SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1
Classify each of the beams shown as statically determinate or statically

indeterminate. If statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees
of indeterminacy. The beams are subjected to external loadings that are
assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the beams.
(a) (c)
(b) (d)

Classify each of the pin-connected structures shown as statically

determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate,
report the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The structures are
subjected to external loadings that are assumed to be known and can
act anywhere on the beams.
(a)
(b)

Classify each of the pin-connected structures shown as statically

determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate,
report the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The structures are
subjected to external loadings that are assumed to be known and can
act anywhere on the beams.
(a) (b)

Classify each of the frames shown as statically determinate or statically

indeterminate. If statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees
of indeterminacy. The frames are subjected to external loadings that
are assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the beams.
(a) (b)

Stability
The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and sufficient

conditions for equilibrium.
r < 3n, unstable

r > 3n, unstable **
** if member reactions are concurrent or parallel or some of

the components form a collapsible mechanism
where:
r = number of force and moment reactions
n = number of parts

Classify the structure as stable or unstable. The structures are

subjected to arbitrary external loadings that are assumed to be known.
(a) (c)
(b)
(d)

 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
Algebraic Analysis of Coplanar Force Systems
The equilibrium equations for concurrent-, nonconcurrent-, and parallel-

coplanar forces systems are:
S Fx = 0
S Fy = 0
SM=0

 APPLICATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
Determine the reactions on the beam shown.
270 kN
0.3m
60° 6.80 kN-m
A
B
3.0m 1.2m 2.1m

The compound beam shown is fixed at A. Determine the reactions at A,

B, and C. Assume that the connection at B is a pin and C is a roller.
6 kN/m
8 kN-m
A B C
6.0m 4.5m

The side girder supports the boat and deck. An idealized model of this
girder is shown in the next slide, where it can be assumed A is a roller
and B is a pin. Using a local code the anticipated deck loading
transmitted to the girder is 6 kN/m. Wind exerts a resultant horizontal
force of 4 kN as shown, and the mass of the boat that is supported by
the girder is 23 Mg. The boat’s mass center is at G. Determine the
reactions at the supports.

1.6m 1.8m 2.0m
6 kN/m
4 kN
0.3m
G A B

The side of the building is subjected to a wind loading that creates a

uniform normal pressure of 15 kPa on the windward side and a suction
pressure of 5 kPa on the leeward side. Determine the horizontal and
vertical components of reaction at the pin connections A, B, and C of
the supporting gable arch.

2m
2m
B
3m
3m
C
4m
A 3m
4m 3m
wind

3. ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY
DETERMINATE TRUSSES

 COMMON TYPES OF TRUSSES
Truss - a structure composed of slender members joined together

at their end points. The members commonly used in construction
consist of wooden struts, metal bars, angles, or channels. The joint
connections are usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of
the members to a common plate, called a gusset plate.

Roof Trusses
Roof trusses are often used as part of industrial building frame, such as
the one shown.

Roof Trusses
The main structural elements of a typical roof truss is shown.

Roof Trusses
Common Types of Roof Trusses

Bridge Trusses

Bridge Trusses
The main structural elements of a typical bridge truss are shown

below.

Bridge Trusses
Common Types of Bridge Trusses

 CLASSIFICATION OF COPLANAR TRUSSES
Simple Truss
To prevent collapse, the framework of a truss must be rigid.

Simple Truss
It is important to realize that simple trusses do not have to consist

entirely of triangles.

Compound Truss
A compound truss is formed by connecting two or more simple trusses

together.
There are three ways in which simple trusses are joined together to
form a compound truss.
Type 1. The trusses may be connected by a common joint and bar.

Compound Truss
Type 2. The trusses may be joined by three bars.

Compound Truss
Type 3. The trusses may be joined where bars of a large simple truss,
called the main truss, have been substituted by simple trusses, called
secondary trusses.

Complex Truss
A complex truss is one that cannot be classified as being either simple

or compound.

Determinacy
To get the determinacy of the truss, the following formula shall be

used,
b + r = 2j, statically determinate

b + r > 2j, statically indeterminate
where:
b = number of bars or members of the truss
r = number of external support reactions
j = number of joints of truss

Stability
To check the stability of the truss, the following formula shall be used,
b + r < 2j, unstable

b + r > 2j, unstable **
** determinate or indeterminate, the truss can also be

unstable which will be determined by either inspection
or by a force analysis; if reactions are concurrent or
parallel or some of the components form a
collapsible mechanism

Stability
EXTERNAL STABILITY
A structure is externally unstable if all of its reactions are concurrent or

parallel.

Stability
INTERNAL STABILITY
The internal stability of truss often can be checked by careful inspection

of the arrangement of its member.

Classify each of the truss as stable, unstable, statically determinate, or

statically indeterminate. The trusses are subjected to arbitrary external
loadings.
(a)
(b)

Classify each of the truss as stable, unstable, statically determinate, or

statically indeterminate. The trusses are subjected to arbitrary external
loadings.
(b)
(a)

 THE METHOD OF JOINTS
Procedure for Analysis

 THE METHOD OF JOINTS
Determine the force in each member of the roof truss shown below.
State whether the members are in tension or compression.
2 kN
F
3 kN 3 kN
30° 30°
G E
60° 60°
60° 60°
30° 30° 30° 30°
A D
B C
4m 4m 4m

 ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS
Determining Zero-Force Members
Truss analysis using the method of joints is greatly simplified if one is

able to first determine the members that support no loading.

 THE METHOD OF SECTIONS

 THE METHOD OF SECTIONS
Determine the force in members GF, BF, and BC of the roof truss shown
below. State whether the members are in tension or compression.
2 kN
F
3 kN 3 kN
30° 30°
G E
60° 60°
60° 60°
30° 30° 30° 30°
A D
B C
4m 4m 4m

 COMPOUND TRUSSES
Type 1. Simple trusses connected together by a common joint

and a bar.
Determine the external reactions on the truss, and then, using the
method of sections, cut the truss through the bar connecting the two
simple trusses so that this bar force may be obtained when one of the
sectioned parts is isolated as a free body. Once this force is obtained,
proceed to analyze the simple trusses using the method of joints.

Indicate how to analyze the compound truss shown. The reactions at

the supports have been calculated.
4m
H G
2m
F
I J K
2m
A E
B C D
2m 2m 2m 2m
5 kN 4 kN 2 kN 4 kN 5 kN

Type 2. Simple trusses connected together with three bars.
Determine the external reactions on the truss. Use the method of

sections and cut each of the three bars that connect the two simple
trusses together. From a free-body diagram of one of the sectioned
part, determine each of the three bar forces. Proceed to analyze each
simple truss using the method of joints.


D H
C G 4m
2m
45° 45° 45° F

A B E
2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
10 kN 10 kN 10 kN 10 kN

Type 3. Large trusses composed of secondary trusses pin

connected to form a main truss.
Although many of these types of trusses can be analyzed using the

method of sections combined with the method of joints, we will instead
use a more general method. Remove the secondary trusses and replace
them by dashed members so as to construct the main truss. The loads
that the secondary trusses exert on the main truss are also placed on
the main truss at the joints where the secondary trusses are connected
to the main truss.

Type 3. Large trusses composed of secondary trusses pin

connected to form a main truss.
Determine the forces in the dashed members of the main truss using
the method of joints or the method of sections. These forces are then
applied to the joints of the secondary trusses and then, using the
method of joints, the bar forces in the secondary trusses can be
obtained.


E
3 kN 3 kN
F D
G H
45°
A C
B
6m 6m
4.62 kN 5 kN 4.62 kN

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
With reference to the truss in the figure below, the following steps are
necessary to solve for the member forces using the substitute-member
method.

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
Reduction to Stable Simple Truss
Analyze the truss using method of joints. If a joint is reached where

there are three unknowns, remove one of the members at the joint and
replace it by an imaginary member elsewhere in the truss. By doing
this, reconstruct the truss to be a stable simple truss.
The new truss can now be analyzed by the method of joints for the two
types of loading that follow.

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
Reduction to Stable Simple Truss

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
External Loading on Simple Truss
Load the simple truss with the actual loading P, then determine the
force S’i in each member i.
Remove External Loading from Simple Truss
Consider the simple truss without the external load P. Place equal but
oppositely collinear unit loads on the truss at the two joints from which
the member was removed.

 COMPLEX TRUSSES

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
If these forces develop a force si in the ith truss member, then by

proportion, an unknown force x in the removed member would exert a
force xsi in the ith member.
Superposition
If the effects of the two loadings are combined, the force in the ith
member of the truss will be
Si = S’i + xsi <--- (1)

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
Superposition
In particular, for the substituted member EC in the previous figure, the

force SEC = S’EC + xsEC . Since member EC does not actually exist on the
original truss, we will choose x to have a magnitude such that it yields
zero force in EC. Hence,
S’EC + xsEC = 0 <--- (2)
or x = S’EC /sEC . Once the value of x has been determined, the force in
other members i of the complex truss can be determined from Eq. (1).

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
Determine the force in each member of the complex truss shown in the
figure. Assume joints B, F, and D are on the same horizontal line. State
whether the members are in tension or compression.
C
20 kN
1.2m
B 45° F 45° D
0.9m
A
E
2.4m

 COMPLEX TRUSSES
C
20 kN
1.2m
F
B 45° 45° D
0.9m
A
E
2.4m

 SPACE TRUSSES
Space Truss
• consists of members joined together at their ends to form a stable

three-dimensional structure

 SPACE TRUSSES
Determinacy and Stability
To get the determinacy and stability of the truss, the following formula
shall be used,
b + r < 3j, unstable truss

b + r = 3j, statically determinate – check stability
b + r > 3j, statically indeterminate – check stability
where:
b = number of bars or members of the truss
r = number of external support reactions
j = number of joints of truss

 SPACE TRUSSES
Assumptions for Design
The members of a space truss may be treated as axial-force members

provided the external loading is applied at the joints and the joints
consists of ball-and-socket connections.

 SPACE TRUSSES
x, y, z, Force Components
Since the analysis of a space truss is three-dimensional, it will often be

necessary to resolve the force F in a member into components acting
along the x, y, z axes.
d = x 2 + y2 + z2
Fx = F
x
d ( ) Fy = F
y
d ( ) Fz = F
z
d ( )
F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

 SPACE TRUSSES
• METHOD OF SECTIONS. If only a few member forces are to be

determined. When passing an imaginary plane section, not more than
six unknown members should be cut.
• METHOD OF JOINTS. If the forces in all the members of the truss

are to be determined. In selecting a joint for analysis, choose a joint
on which not more than three unknown members are acting.

 SPACE TRUSSES
Determine the force in each member of the space truss shown in the
figure. The truss is supported by a ball-and-socket joint at A, a slotted
roller joint at B, and a cable at C. State whether the members are in
tension or compression.

 SPACE TRUSSES
y C
D
4m
Ey = 4 kN
A 2m
E
2m
z 4m
x

4. INTERNAL LOADINGS DEVELOPED

IN STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

 INTERNAL LOADINGS AT A SPECIFIED POINT
Sign Convention
The positive sign convention of axial force N, shear force V, and

moment M, to be adopted are as shown.

• SUPPORT REACTIONS. It is necessary to solve for the support

reactions before a member is “cut” or sectioned.
• FREE-BODY DIAGRAM. Keep all distributed loadings, couple moments

and forces acting on the member in their exact location. Pass an
imaginary section through the member, perpendicular to its axis at
the point where the internal loading is to be determined. Sketch the
free-body diagram indicating the positive direction of N, V, and M.
• EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM. Moments should be summed at the

section about axes that pass through the centroid of the member’s
cross-sectional area.


Determine the internal shear and moment acting in the cantilever beam
shown at sections passing through C and D.
5 kN 5 kN 5 kN 5 kN 5 kN
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m
B 20 kN-m
A
D C

 SHEAR AND MOMENT FUNCTIONS
V and M Functions
The internal shear and moment functions will be discontinuous, or their

slope will be discontinuous, at points where the type or magnitude of
the distributed load changes or where concentrated forces or couple
moments are applied. Because of this, shear and moment functions
must be determined for each region of the beam located between any
two discontinuities of loading.

• SUPPORT REACTIONS. Determine the support reactions on the beam.
• SHEAR AND MOMENT FUNCTIONS.

- Specify separate coordinates x and associated origins, extending
into the regions of the beam between concentrated forces and/or
couple moments, or where there is discontinuity of distributed load.
- Section the beam perpendicular to its axis at each distance x,
determining the unknowns V and M at the cut sections as functions of
x, acting on their positive directions.
- V is obtained from SFy = 0 and M is obtained by summing moments
about the point located at the cut section, SM = 0.

Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown as a function of

x.
300 kN
50 kN/m
150 kN-m
A B C
3.6m 2.4m

 SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A BEAM
Shear and Moment Diagrams
In cases where a beam is subjected to several concentrated forces,

couples, and distributed loads, plotting V and M versus x can become
quite tedious since several functions must be plotted.

Eq. 4-1 Eq. 4-2
As noted, Eq. 4-1 states that the slope of the shear diagram at a point
(dV/dx) is equal to the intensity of the distributed load w(x) at the
point. Likewise, Eq. 4-2 states that the slope of the moment diagram
(dM/dx) is equal to the intensity of the shear at the point.

Eq. 4-3 Eq. 4-4
As noted, Eq. 4-3 states that the change in the shear between any two
points on a beam equals the area under the distributed loading diagram
between the two points. Likewise, Eq. 4-4 states that the change in the
moment between the two points equals the area under the shear
diagram between the two points.

For (a), the summation of forces along y will give DV = -F, thus, when
the external force F acts downward on the beam, DV is negative. For
(b), the summation of moment about O will give DM = M’, thus, when
the external couple moment M’ is applied clockwise, DM is positive.

• SUPPORT REACTIONS. Determine the support reactions on the beam.
• SHEAR DIAGRAM.
- Establish the V and x axes and plot the values of the shear at the
two ends of the beam.
- Use the equation of difference in shear between two points, V i+1 =
Vi + DV. If a concentrated force or a distributed load is upward, DV is
positive. Take note that for a case of a distributed load, DV is the
area of the load diagram.
- Since w(x) is integrated to obtain V, if w(x) is a curve of degree n,
then V(x) will be a curve of degree n+1.

• MOMENT DIAGRAM.
- Establish the M and x axes and plot the values of the moment at the
two ends of the beam.
- Use the equation of difference in moment between two points, M i+1
= Mi + DM. If an externally applied couple moment is clockwise, DM is
positive. Take note that DM is also the area of the load diagram.
- At the point where the shear is zero, dM/dx = 0, and therefore this
may be a point of maximum or minimum moment.
- Since V(x) is integrated to obtain M, if V(x) is a curve of degree n,
then M(x) will be a curve of degree n+1.

Sketch the shear and moment diagrams on the beam shown.
300 kN
50 kN/m
150 kN-m
A B C
3.6m 2.4m

Sketch the shear and moment diagrams for a compound beam shown.
30 kN/m
25 kN
20 kN/m
150 kN-m
A
B C D E F
5m 3m 2m 3m 3m

 SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A FRAME
A frame is composed of several connected members that are either

fixed or pin connected at their ends. To analyze the problem, the
procedure outlined in the shear and moment diagrams in the beams
can be used. Note: all loadings are resolved into components acting
parallel and perpendicular to the member’s axis.
When drawing the moment diagram, always draw the moment diagram
positive on the compression side of the member.

Sketch the shear and moment diagrams for each member of the frame.
Assume the support A is a pin and D is a roller. Assume that the beam
and column connection is fixed.


80 kN/m
B C
60 kN/m 8m
A D
10m

Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the frame shown. Assume A
is a pin, C is a roller, and B is a fixed joint.
80 kN
B C
40 kN/m 2m
3m
4m 4m

 MOMENT DIAGRAMS CONSTRUCTED BY METHOD

OF SUPERPOSITION


OF SUPERPOSITION


OF SUPERPOSITION
Draw the moment diagrams for the beam using the method of super-
position. Consider the beam to be cantilevered from pin at A.
50 kN/m
A B
12 kN-m
6m 6m


OF SUPERPOSITION
Draw the moment diagrams for the beam using the method of super-
position.
5 kN/m
150 kN-m
B
A C
5m 15m

5. CABLES AND ARCHES

 CABLES
Cables Subjected to Concentrated Loads
When a cable of negligible weight supports several concentrated loads,

the cable takes the form of several straight-line segments, each of
which is subjected to a constant tensile force.

 CABLES
Determine the tension in each segment of the cable shown. Also, what
is the dimension h?
A
2m
h D
2m
B
3 kN C
8 kN
2m 2m 1.5m

 CABLES
Cables Subjected to a Uniform Distributed Loads
Cables provide a very effective means of supporting the dead weight of

girders or bridge decks having very long spans.

 CABLES
Applying the equations of equilibrium yields,
Dividing each of these equations by Dx and taking the limit as Dx → 0,

and hence Dy → 0, Dq → 0, and DT → 0, we obtain

 CABLES
Integrating Eq. 5-1, where T = FH at x = 0, we have:
which indicates the horizontal component of force at any point along

the cable remains constant.
Integrating Eq. 5-2, realizing that T sin q = 0 at x = 0, gives
Dividing Eq. 5-5 by Eq. 5-4 eliminates T. Then using Eq. 5-3, we can
obtain the slope at any point,

 CABLES
Performing a second integration with y = 0 at x = 0 yields
That is the equation of a parabola. The constant FH may be obtained by

using the boundary condition y = h at x = L. Thus,
Finally, substituting into Eq. 5-7 yields

 CABLES
From Eq. 5-4, the maximum tension in the cable occurs when q is
maximum, i.e. at x= L. Hence, from Eqs. 5-4 and 5-5,
Or using Eq. 5-8, we can express Tmax in terms of wo, i.e.,

 CABLES
The cable in the figure supports a girder which weighs 12 kN/m. Solve
for the tension in the cable at points A, B, and C.
30m
12m C
6m
B

 CABLES
The suspension bridge is constructed using the two stiffening trusses

that are pin connected at their ends C and supported by a pin at A and
a rocker at B. Determine the maximum tension in the cable IH. The
cable has a parabolic shape and the bridge is subjected to the single
load of 50 kN.

 CABLES

 ARCHES
Different Types of Arches
Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moments in long
span structures. Essentially, an arch acts as an inverted cable, so it
receives its load mainly in compression, although, because of its
rigidity, it must also resist some bending and shear depending upon
how it is loaded and shaped.

 ARCHES
Different Types of Arches

 ARCHES
Three-Hinged Arch
Considering the analysis of a three-hinged arch shown, it will provide

some insights as to how arches transmit loads.

 ARCHES
The tied three-hinged arch is subjected to the loading shown. Compute

for the components of reaction at A and C and the tension in the cable.

 ARCHES
The three-hinged tied arch is subjected to the loading shown. Compute

the force in members CH and CB. The dashed member GF of the truss
is intended to carry no force.

 ARCHES

6. INFLUENCE LINES FOR STATICALLY

DETERMINATE STRUCTURES

 INFLUENCE LINES
Background
Although the procedure for constructing an influence line is rather

basic, one should clearly be aware of the difference between
constructing an influence line and constructing a shear or moment
diagram. Influence lines represent the effect of a moving load only at a
specified point on a member, whereas shear and moment diagrams
represent the effect of fixed loads at all points along the axis of the
member.

 INFLUENCE LINES
Tabulate Values
• Place a unit load at various locations, x, along the member, and at

each location, use statics to determine the value of the function
(reaction, shear, or moment) at the specified point.
• If the influence line for a vertical force reaction at a point on a beam
is to be constructed, consider the reaction to be positive at the point
when it acts upwards on the beam.
• If a shear or moment influence line is to be drawn for a point, take
the shear or moment at the point as positive according to the same
sign convention used for drawing shear and moment diagrams.

 INFLUENCE LINES
Tabulate Values
• All statically determinate beams will have influence lines that consist
of straight line segments. After some practice one should be able to
minimize computations and locate the unit load only at points
representing the end points of each line segment.
• To avoid errors, it is recommended that one first construct a table
listing “unit load at x” versus the corresponding value of the function
calculated at the specific point; that is “reaction R”, “shear V”, or
“moment M”. Once the load has been placed at various points along
the span of the member, the tabulated values can be plotted and the
influence-line segments constructed.

 INFLUENCE LINES
Influence-Line Equations
• The influence line can also be constructed by placing the unit load at
a variable position x on the member and then computing the value of
R, V, or M at the point as a function of x. In this manner, the
equations of the various line segments composing the influence line
can be determined and plotted.

 INFLUENCE LINES
Construct the influence line for the vertical reaction at A of the beam.
A B
10m

 INFLUENCE LINES
Construct the influence line for the vertical reaction at B of the beam.
B
A
5m 5m

 INFLUENCE LINES
Construct the influence line for the shear at point C of the beam.
2.5m
10m

 INFLUENCE LINES
Construct the influence line for the moment at point C of the beam.
5m
10m

 INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS
Loadings
Once the influence line for a function (reaction, shear, or moment) has
been constructed, it will then be possible to position the live loads on
the beam which will produce the maximum value of the function. Two
types of loadings will now be considered.

Concentrated Forces
Since the numerical values of a function

for an influence line are determined
using a dimensionless unit load, then
for any concentrated force F acting on
the beam at any position x, the value of
the function can be found by multiplying
the ordinate of the influence line at the
position x by the magnitude of F.

Uniform Load
In general, the value of a function caused by a uniform distributed load

is simply the area under the influence line for the function multiplied by
the intensity of the uniform load.

Determine the maximum positive live shear that can be developed at

point C in the beam shown due to a concentrated moving load of 4 kN
and a uniform moving load of 2 kN/m.
2.5m
10m

 INFLUENCE LINES FOR TRUSSES
Background
Trusses are often used as primary load-carrying elements for bridges.

Hence, for design it is important to be able to construct the influence
lines for each of its members.

 INFLUENCE LINES FOR TRUSSES
Draw the influence line for the force in member GB of the bridge truss.

 MAXIMUM INFLUENCE AT A POINT DUE TO A SERIES

OF CONCENTRATED LOADS

Determine the maximum positive shear created at point C in the beam
due to the wheel loads of the moving vehicle valued at 4.5 kN, 18 kN,
and 18 kN, separated by a distance of 1.5m each.
3m
12m

 MAXIMUM INFLUENCE AT A POINT DUE TO A SERIES

OF CONCENTRATED LOADS

Determine the maximum moment created at point C in the beam due to
the wheel loads of the moving vehicle valued at 9 kN, 18 kN, and 13.5
kN, separated by a distances of 1.2m and 1.8m, respectively.
3m
12m

CIEN 3144 Structural Theory 1

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STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

1. Types of Structures and Loads

2. Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

3. Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

4. Internal Loadings Developed in Structural Members

5. Cables and Arches

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

6. Influence Lines for Statically Determinate Structures

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

1. TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Structure - a system of connected parts used to support a load.

Important examples: Important to account:

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

simply supported beam cantilever beam

fixed-supported beam continuous beam

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) 2015

National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)

DPWH Design Guidelines, Criteria, and Standards 2015

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Dead loads consists of the weights of the various structural members

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Sample Problem No. 1

A floor beam is used to support the 1.83 m width of a lightweight plain

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials,

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials,

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Other Natural Loads

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

Whenever a structure is designed, it is important to give consideration

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1

typical “pin-supported” typical “fixed-supported”

CIEN 3144 STRUCTURAL THEORY 1