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• Telegraph
– 1844, Samuel Morse,
• “What hath God wrought” transmitted by Morse’s electric telegraph
• Washington D.C ~ Baltimore, Maryland
• Morse code : variable-length code (a dot, a dash, a letter space, a word
space)
• Radio
– 1864, James Clerk Maxwell
• Formulated the electromagnetic theory of light
• Predicted the existence of radio waves
– 1887, Heinrich Hertz
• The existence of radio waves was confirmed experimentally
– 1894, Oliver Lodge
• Demo : wireless communication over a relatively short distance (150
yards)
– 1901, Guglielmo Marconi
• Demo : wireless communication over a long distance (1700 miles)
– 1906, Reginald Fessenden
• Conducting the first radio broascast
– 1918, Edwin H. Armstrong
• Invented the superheterodyne radio receiver
– 1933, Edwin H. Armstrong
• Demonstrated another modulation scheme ( Frequency nodulation)
• Telephone
– 1875, Alexander Graham Bell
• Invented the telephone
– 1897, A. B. Strowger
• Devised the autiomatic step-by-step switch
• Electronics
– 1904, John Abbrose Eleming
• Invented the vacuum-tube diode
– 1906, Lee de Forest
• Invented the vacuum-tube triode
– 1948, Walter H. Brattain, William Shockley (Bell Lab.)
• Invented the transistor
– 1958, Robert Noyce
• The first silicon integrated circuit (IC) produce
• Television
– 1928, Philo T. Farnsworth
• First all-electronic television system
– 1929, Vladimir K. Zworykin
• all-electronic television system
– 1939, BBC
• Broadcasting television service on a commercial basis
• Digital Communications
– 1928, Harry Nyquist
• The theory of signal transmission in telegraphy
– 1937, Alex Reeves
• Invent pulse-code modulation
– 1958, (Bell Lab.)
• First call through a stored-program system
– 1960, (Morris, Illinois)
• The first commercial telephone service with digital switching begin.
– 1962, (Bell Lab.)
• The first T-1 carrier system transmission was installed
– 1943, D. O. North
• Matched filter for the optimum detection of a unknown signal in a
additive white noise
– 1948, Claude Shannon
• The theoretical foundation of digital communications were laid
• Computer Networks
– 1943~1946, (Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the Univ. of
Pennsylvania)
• ENIAC : first electronic digital computer
– 1950s
• Computers and terminals started communicating with each other
– 1965, Robert Lucky
• Idea of adaptive equalization
– 1982, G. Ungerboeck
• Efficient modulation techniques
– 1950~1970
• Various studies were made on computer networks
– 1971
• Advanced Research Project Agency Network(APRANET) first put into service
– 1985,
• APRANET was renamed the Internet
– 1990, Tim Berners-Lee
• Proposed a hypermedia software interface to internet (World Wide Web)
• Satellite Communications
– 1945, C. Clark
• Studied the use of satellite for communications
– 1955, John R. Pierce
• Proposed the use of satellite for communications
– 1957, (Soviet Union)
• Launched Sputnik I
– 1958, (United States)
• Launched Explorer I
– 1962, (Bell Lab.)
• Launched Telstar I
• Optical Communications
– 1966, K.C. Kao, G. A. Hockham
• Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as a dielectric
waveguide
– 1959~1960
• The laser had been invented and developed
1.2 Applications
– Broadcasting
• Which involves the use of a single powerful transmitter
and numerous receivers that are relatively inexpensive
to build
– point-to-point communications
• In which the communication process takes place over a
link between a single transmitter and a single receiver.
• Radio
– Broadcasting
• AM and FM radio
– The voices are transmitted from broadcasting stations that
operate in our neighborhood
• Television
– Transmits visual images and voice
– Point-to-point communication
• Satellite communication
– Built around a satellite in geostationary orbit, relies on line-of-
sight radio propagation for the operation of an uplink and a
downlink
• Communication Networks
– Consists of the interconnection of a number of routers
that are made up of intelligent processors
– Circuit switching
• Is usually controlled by a centralized hierarchical control
mechanism with knowledge of the network’s entire organization
– Packet switching
• Store and forward
– Any message longer than a specified size is subdivided prior to
transmission into segments
– The original message is reassembled at the destination on a packet-by-
packet basis
• Advantage
– When a link has traffic to sent, the link tends to be more fully utilized.
• Data Networks
– Layer
• A process or device inside a computer system that is
designed to perform a specific function
– Open systems interconnection (OSI) reference
model
• The communications and related-connection functions
are organized as a series of layers with well-defined
interfaces.
• Composed of seven layers
• Internet
– The applications are carried out independently of the technology employed to
construct the network
– By the same token, the network technology is capable of evolving without
affecting the applications.
– Internal operation of a subnet is organized in two different ways
• Connected manner : where the connections are called virtual circuits, in analogy
with physical circuits set up in a telephone system.
• Connectionless manner : where the independent packets are called datagrams, in
analogy with telegrams.
• Integration of Telephone and Internet
– VOIP’s Quality of service
• Packet loss ratio :
– the number of packets lost in transport across the network to the
total number of packets pumped into the network
• Connection delay :
– The time taken for a packet of a particular host-to-host
connection to transmit across the network
– IN future
• VOIP will replace private branch exchanges (PBXs)
• If the loading is always low and response time is fast, VOIP
telephony may become mainstream and widespread
• Data Storage
– The digital domain is preferred over the analog domain for the
storage of audio and video signals for the the following
compelling reasons
1) The quality of a digitized audio/video signal, measured in terms of
frequency response, linearity, and noise, is determined by the digital-
to-analog conversion (DAC) process, the parameterization of which is
under the designer’s control.
2) Once the audio/video signal is digitized, we can make use of well-
developed and powerful encoding techniques for data compression to
reduce bandwidth, and error-control coding to provide protection
against the possibility of making errors in the course of storage.
3) For most practical applications, the digital storage of audio and video
signals does not degrade with time.
4) Continued improvements in the fabrication of integrated circuits used
to build CDs and DVDs ensure the ever-increasing cost-effectiveness
of these digital storage devices.
1.3 Primary Resources and Operational Requirements
• Modulation Theory
– Sinusoidal carrier wave
• Whose amplitude, phase, or frequency is the parameter
chosen for modification by the information-bearing signal
– Periodic sequence of pulses
• Whose amplitude, width, or position is the parameter chosen
for modification by the information-bearing signal
• Detection Theory
– Signal-detection problem
• The presence of noise
• Factors such as the unknown phase-shift introduced into the carrier
wave due to transmission of the sinusoidally modulated signal over
the channel
– In digital communications, we look at
• The average probability of symbol error at the receiver
output
• The issue of dealing with uncontrollable factors
• Comparison of one digital modulation scheme against
another.
• Last but by no means least, communication systems touch out daily lives
both at home and in the workplace, and our lives would be much poorer
without the wide availability of communication devices that we take for
granted.
Amplitude modulation
Amplitude modulation is the simplest of the three to understand. The
transmitter just uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the amplitude of
the carrier, Vco to produce a modulated signal, VAM(t).
Here are the three signals in mathematical form:
Information: Vm(t)
Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin (2 p fc t + f )
AM: VAM(t) = { Vco + Vm(t) }sin (2 p fc t + f)
Here, we see that the amplitude term has been replaced by the
combination of the original amplitude plus the information signal.
Amplitude Modulation
The amount of modulation depends on the amplitude of the information
signal.
This is usually expressed as a ratio of the maximum information signal to
the amplitude of the carrier.
Modulation Index m = MAX(Vm(t) )/ Vco.
If the information signal is also a simple sine wave, the modulation index
will be m = Vmo/Vco.
The interpretation of the modulation index, m, may be expressed as: The
fraction (percentage if multiplied by 100) of the carrier amplitude that it
varies by.
If m =0.5, the carrier amplitude varies by 50 % above and below its
original value. If m= 1.0 then it varies by 100%.
Modulation: Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
ASK encodes digital data by modulating the carrier's amplitude between two
or more levels. Suppose a signal with amplitude 1 represents a binary 0 and
a signal with amplitude 2 represents a binary 1. AM is more sensitive to
noise than other modulation techniques => AM is not widely used in data
transmission
.
A period is the amount of time before a wave repeats itself.
Modulation: Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
Encodes digital data by modulating the carrier's frequency between two or
more values. For example, a binary 0 would be one frequency (or group of
frequencies) and a binary 1 would be some other frequency (or group of
frequencies). FSK is less susceptible to corruption than ASK. Many
modems use FSK to convert digital data to analogue signals.
Modulation: Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Phase-shift keying encodes digital data by shifting the phase of the
carrier. PSK-encoded data is highly resistant to corruption.
Demodulation
The amplitude of each pulse being equal to the amplitude of the original
analogue signal at the sampling instant. The resulting signal is thus known as a
pulse amplitude modulated or PAM signal.
Digitization
• The PAM signal is still analogue since its amplitude can vary over
the full amplitude range.
• It is converted into an all-digital form by quantizing each pulse
• into its equivalent binary form.
• Eight binary digits (bits) are used to quantize each PAM signal
which include one bit to indicate the sign of the signal (positive
or negative).
• This means 256 distinct levels are used. 00 -> FF = 256 distinct
levels.
The resulting digital signal has a bit rate of 64000
= 8 * 8000 bits per second
Digitization
Digital encoding
Most LANS transmit digital data in digital signals. To do this, transmitter
and receiver must accurately determine when each signal element occurs
and what its value is. Clock must be used in which the sender and the
receiver agree on.
Lots of digital encoding technique exists, here are few of them:
UNIPOLAR:
Bits are transmitted as 힕 for binary 0 and 0V as binary 1. (old
teletype machine)
Digital encoding
POLAR:
Same as RS-232-C standard.
Digital encoding
MANCHESTER Coding:
High-to-Low mid-bit transition for 0 input with the clock, and low-to-
high mid-bit transition for 1 input with the clock.(input means the raw
signal). Both transitions must be synchronized with the clock between
the sender and. the receiver