1

An Introduction to
Anatomy and
Physiology

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by

Jason LaPres
Lone Star College—North Harris

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

An Introduction to Studying the Human Body

• Learning Outcomes
• 1-1 Explain the importance of studying anatomy and
physiology.
• 1-2 Identify basic study skill strategies to use in this
course.
• 1-3 Define anatomy and physiology, describe the
origins of anatomical and physiological terms,
and explain the significance of Terminologia
Anatomica (International Anatomical
Terminology).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

An Introduction to Studying the Human Body

• Learning Outcomes
• 1-4 Explain the relationship between anatomy and
physiology, and describe various specialties of
each discipline.
• 1-5 Identify the major levels of organization in
organisms, from the simplest to the most
complex, and identify major components of each
organ system.
• 1-6 Explain the concept of homeostasis.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

An Introduction to Studying the Human Body

• Learning Outcomes
• 1-7 Describe how negative feedback and positive
feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation,
and explain the significance of homeostasis.
• 1-8 Use anatomical terms to describe body
sections, body regions, and relative positions.
• 1-9 Identify the major body cavities and their
subdivisions, and describe the functions of each.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

An Introduction to Studying the Human Body

• Classification of Living Things

• Humans and many other animals are vertebrates
• Characterized by a segmented vertebral column

• Common characteristics suggest the same path in

evolution

• Homeostasis
• The goal of physiological regulation and the key to
survival in a changing environment

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect
Your Life

• Anatomy
• Is the oldest medical science
• 1600 B.C.
• Physiology
• Is the study of function
• Biochemistry
• Biology
• Chemistry
• Genetics
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success

• Study Strategies
• Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions
• Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before going to
class or lab
• Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course
• Set up a study schedule and stick to it
• Do not procrastinate
• Approach the information in different ways
• Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly
• As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek
assistance

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success

• Important Features of the Textbook

• Learning Outcomes • End-of-Chapter Study
and Review Materials
• Illustrations, Tables,
and Photos • Systems Integrators

• Pronunciation Guides • Colored Tabs

• Checkpoint Questions • End-of-Book
Reference Sections
• Tips & Tricks
• Clinical Notes
• Arrow Icons

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success

• Supplements
• Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™) 3.0 DVD
• MasteringA&P™ Study Area
• Interactive Physiology® 10-System Suite (IP-10) CD-ROM
• Martini’s Atlas of the Human Body
• Get Ready for A&P!
• A&P Applications Manual
• Study Guide

• Full descriptions in preface of textbook

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-3 Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy
• Describes the structures of the body
• What they are made of
• Where they are located
• Associated structures

• Physiology
• Is the study of:
• Functions of anatomical structures
• Individual and cooperative functions

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology

• Anatomy
• Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines
large, visible structures
• Surface anatomy: exterior features
• Regional anatomy: body areas
• Systemic anatomy: organ systems
• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death
• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology

• Anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules

• Cytology: study of cells and their structures

• cyt- = cell

• Histology: study of tissues and their structures

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology

• Physiology
• Cell physiology: processes within and between cells
• Organ physiology: functions of specific organs
• Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system
• Pathological physiology: effects of diseases

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 Levels of Organization

• The Chemical (or Molecular) Level

• Atoms are the smallest chemical units
• Molecules are a group of atoms working together

• The Cellular Level

• Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working
together

• The Tissue Level

• A tissue is a group of similar cells working together

• The Organ Level

• An organ is a group of different tissues working together

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1-5 Levels of Organization

• The Organ System Level

• An organ system is a group of organs working together
• Humans have 11 organ systems

• The Organism Level

• A human is an organism

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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization

Cellular Level

Chemical and Molecular Levels

Heart muscle
cell
Protein filaments
Complex protein molecule
Atoms in combination

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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization

Organ system Organism

level level
Organ Level
Tissue Level

Cardiac muscle The heart

tissue

The
cardiovascular
system

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Integumentary
• Major Organs
• Skin
• Hair
• Sweat glands
• Nails
• Functions
• Protects against environmental hazards
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Provides sensory information

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Skeletal
• Major Organs
• Bones
• Cartilages
• Associated ligaments
• Bone marrow
• Functions
• Provides support and protection for other
tissues
• Stores calcium and other minerals
• Forms blood cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Muscular
• Major Organs
• Skeletal muscles and associated tendons
• Functions
• Provides movement
• Provides protection and support for other
tissues
• Generates heat that maintains body
temperature

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Nervous
• Major Organs
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nerves
• Sense organs
• Functions
• Directs immediate responses to stimuli
• Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems
• Provides and interprets sensory information about external
conditions

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Endocrine
• Major Organs
• Pituitary gland • Thyroid gland
• Pancreas • Adrenal glands
• Gonads
• Endocrine tissues in other systems
• Functions
• Directs long-term changes in the activities of other
organ systems
• Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body
• Controls many structural and functional changes during
development

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Cardiovascular
• Major Organs
• Heart
• Blood
• Blood vessels
• Functions
• Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved
materials including nutrients, waste products,
oxygen, and carbon dioxide
• Distributes heat and assists in control of
body temperature

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Lymphatic
• Major Organs
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
• Functions
• Defends against infection and disease
• Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Respiratory
• Major Organs
• Nasal cavities
• Sinuses
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
• Alveoli

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Respiratory
• Functions
• Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where
gas exchange occurs)
• Provides oxygen to bloodstream
• Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream
• Produces sounds for communication

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Digestive
• Major Organs
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas

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1-5 Levels of Organization

• The Organ Systems

• Digestive
• Functions
• Processes and digests food
• Absorbs and conserves water
• Absorbs nutrients
• Stores energy reserves

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Urinary
• Major Organs
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
• Functions
• Excretes waste products from the blood
• Controls water balance by regulating volume of
urine produced
• Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination
• Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Male Reproductive
• Major Organs
• Testes
• Epididymides
• Ductus deferentia
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Penis
• Scrotum

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Male Reproductive
• Functions
• Produces male sex cells (sperm),
suspending fluids, and hormones
• Sexual intercourse

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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Female Reproductive
• Major Organs
• Ovaries
• Uterine tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina
• Labia
• Clitoris
• Mammary glands

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Female Reproductive
• Functions
• Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and
hormones
• Supports developing embryo from
conception to delivery
• Provides milk to nourish newborn infant
• Sexual intercourse

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-6 Homeostasis

• Homeostasis
• All body systems working together to maintain a
stable internal environment
• Systems respond to external and internal changes
to function within a normal range (body
temperature, fluid balance)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-6 Homeostasis

• Mechanisms of Regulation

• Autoregulation (intrinsic)

• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some

environmental change

• Extrinsic regulation

• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine

systems

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1-6 Homeostasis

• Receptor
• Receives the stimulus

• Control center
• Processes the signal and sends instructions

• Effector
• Carries out instructions

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Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature

RECEPTOR
Information
Normal Thermometer affects
condition
disturbed
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises

HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL CENTER

(Thermostat) Air Air
Normal room
temperature conditioner conditioner

Room temperature (°C)

turns on turns off

RESPONSE:
Room temperature 20° 30° 40°
drops Normal
22 range
Normal
condition EFFECTOR Sends
restored Air conditioner commands
turns on to
Time
In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat With this regulatory system, room
(the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi- temperature fluctuates around the
tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, set point.
when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat
turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback

• The Role of Negative Feedback

• The response of the effector negates the stimulus

• Body is brought back into homeostasis

• Normal range is achieved

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Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature

RECEPTORS
Temperature Information
sensors in skin affects
Normal and
temperature hypothalamus CONTROL
disturbed CENTER
STIMULUS:
Body temperature
rises

HOMEOSTASIS Thermoregulatory
Normal body center in brain Vessels Vessels
temperature dilate, constrict,
RESPONSE: sweating sweating
Increased heat loss, increases decreases
body temperature

Body temperature (°C)

drops

Normal EFFECTORS 37.2

Sends Normal
temperature 37 range
• Sweat glands commands
restored in skin increase
36.7
to
secretion
• Blood vessels
in skin dilate
Time
Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are The thermoregulatory center keeps
comparable to those shown in Figure 12. A control center body temperature fluctuating
in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat within an acceptable range, usually
with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds between 36.7 and 37.2°C.
37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow
to the skin and increased sweating.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback

• The Role of Positive Feedback

• The response of the effector increases change of the
stimulus

• Body is moved away from homeostasis

• Normal range is lost

• Used to speed up processes

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Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting
Chemicals
Damage to cells in the
blood vessel wall releases
chemicals that begin the
process of blood clotting.
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The chemicals start chain
reactions in which cells,
cell fragments, and
soluble proteins in the
blood begin to form a clot.
Clotting
accelerates
Positive
feedback
loop
Chemicals Blood clot
As clotting continues, This escalating process
each step releases is a positive feedback
chemicals that further loop that ends with the
accelerate the process. formation of a blood clot,
which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.
1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback

• Systems Integration
• Systems work together to maintain homeostasis

• Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium

• Opposing forces are in balance
• Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation

• Physiological systems work to restore balance

• Failure results in disease or death

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Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-8 Anatomical Terminology

• Superficial Anatomy

• Locating structures on or near the body surface

• Anatomical Landmarks

• Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward

• Supine: lying down, face up

• Prone: lying down, face down

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1-8 Anatomical Terminology

• Superficial Anatomy
• Anatomical Landmarks
• References to palpable structures
• Anatomical Regions
• Body regions
• Abdominopelvic quadrants
• Abdominopelvic regions
• Anatomical Directions
• Reference terms based on subject

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks
Frontal or
forehead Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbital
or eye
Cranial Otic or ear
or skull
Cephalic or head Buccal or cheek
Facial
or face
Oral or mouth Cervical or neck
Mental or chin Thoracic or
thorax, chest
Axillary or armpit
Mammary
or breast
Brachial
or arm Trunk
Abdominal
Antecubital (abdomen)
or front of Umbilical
elbow or navel

Anterior view
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Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks

Antebrachial Pelvic Trunk

or forearm (pelvis)
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Manual
or hand

Pollex Digits Inguinal

or thumb (phalanges) or groin
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal) Pubic
Patellar (pubis)
or kneecap
Femoral
Crural or thigh
or leg
Tarsal or
ankle

Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal) Pedal
Hallux or or foot
great toe

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Anterior view
Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks

Cephalic
or head

Acromial or
shoulder Cervical
Dorsal or or neck
back

Olecranal Upper
or back limb
of elbow

Posterior view

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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks

Lumbar Upper
limb
or loin

Gluteal
or buttock
Lower
Popliteal or
limb
back of knee

Sural
or calf

Calcaneal or
heel of foot

Plantar or
sole of foot

Posterior view
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Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Right Upper Left Upper

Quadrant Quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)
Right Lower Left Lower
Quadrant Quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)

Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four

abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two
perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The
terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations,
are most often used in clinical discussions.
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Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Right Left
hypochondriac hypochondriac
region Epigastric region
region

Right lumbar Umbilical Left lumbar

region region region
Right Hypogastric
(pubic) Left inguinal
inguinal region
region region

Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic

regions provide more precise regional descriptions.

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Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Liver
Stomach
Gallbladder
Spleen
Large intestine

Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
Anatomical relationships. The relationship between
the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the
locations of the internal organs are shown here.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1-7 Directional References

Cranial Superior Right Left

Proximal

Posterior Anterior
or dorsal or ventral

Lateral Medial

Caudal Proximal

Distal

Distal
Inferior
A lateral view. An anterior view. Arrows
indicate important directional
terms used in this text;
definitions and descriptions
are given in Table 12.
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Table 1-2 Directional Terms

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1-8 Anatomical Terminology

• Sectional Anatomy
• Planes and sections
• Plane: a three-dimensional axis
• Section: a slice parallel to a plane
• Used to visualize internal organization and structure
• Important in radiological techniques
• MRI
• PET
• CT

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Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes

Frontal plane

Sagittal plane

Transverse plane

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Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes

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1-9 Body Cavities

• Essential Functions of Body Cavities

1. Protect organs from accidental shocks
2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs

• Ventral body cavity (coelom)

• Divided by the diaphragm

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity

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Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity

Ventral Body Cavity

• Provides protection
• Allows organ movement
• Linings prevent friction
Subdivides during development into

Thoracic Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity

Surrounded by chest wall and

diaphragm
Peritoneal Cavity
Extends
throughout
abdominal cavity
Right Pleural Cavity Mediastinum Left Pleural Cavity and into superior
portion of pelvic
Surrounds right lung Contains the Surrounds left lung
cavity
trachea, esophagus,
and major vessels
Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity
Contains many Contains urinary
Pericardial Cavity digestive glands bladder,
and organs reproductive
Surrounds heart organs, last
portion of
digestive tract

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1-9 Body Cavities

• Serous Membranes

• Line body cavities and cover organs

• Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer

• Parietal layer — lines cavity

• Visceral layer — covers organ

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1-9 Body Cavities

• The Thoracic Cavity

• Right and left pleural cavities
• Contain right and left lungs

• Mediastinum
• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,
esophagus, and thymus
• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
• The heart is located within the pericardial cavity

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Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR

Pleural
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Pericardial
cavity

Diaphragm

Peritoneal
cavity
Abdominopelvic
Abdominal
cavity
cavity

Pelvic
cavity

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Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

Visceral
pericardium
Heart Air space
Pericardial
cavity
Balloon
Parietal
pericardium

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Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

ANTERIOR

Pericardial
cavity
Pleural cavity
Right Left
Parietal lung lung
pleura
Mediastinum
Spinal cord

POSTERIOR

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1-9 Body Cavities

• The Abdominopelvic Cavity

• Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic

cavity

• Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall

• Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs

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1-9 Body Cavities

• The Abdominopelvic Cavity

• Abdominal cavity — superior portion

• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones

• Contains digestive organs

• Retroperitoneal space

• Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular

body wall
• Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the
digestive tract

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1-9 Body Cavities

• The Abdominopelvic Cavity

• Pelvic cavity — inferior portion

• Within pelvic bones

• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.