A Constructivistic Approach

to Learning

William G. Huitt, Ph.D.

Valdosta State
University

Last revised: August 2000

 Cognitive Psychology

The constructive approach to learning is based

on cognitive learning theory, represented as an
S-O-R paradigm. The organism is treated as an
active processor of information.

Stimulus Organism Response

(S) (O) (R)
 Cognitive Psychology

The constructive approach to learning is based

on two different approaches to the study of how
we come to know.
• Information processing
• Developmental
 Information Processing

The most important aspect according to

cognitive psychology is cognition, defined as
"the act or process of knowing in the
broadest sense; specifically, an intellectual
process by which knowledge is gained from
perception or ideas" (Webster's Dictionary).
 Information Processing

The information processing approach focuses

on the study of the structure and function of
mental processing within specific contexts,
environments, or ecologies.
The most often discussed information
processing theory is the stage approach.
 The Stage Theory

The focus of the stage theory is on how

information is stored in memory.
The model is based on the work of Atkinson and
Shriffin (1968) and proposes that information is
processed and stored in three stages:
• Sensory memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory

Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes. In K Spence & J Spence (Eds.). The psychology of learning and
motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
The Stage Theory
 The Stage Theory

In summary, constructing long-term memory

involves three separate processes :
• Attention (process to STM)
• Repetition (maintain in STM)
• Elaboration (process to LTM)
 Bloom´s Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain

(started in 1948 and completed in 1956) was one
of the most influential statements about levels of
knowing.

The taxonomy contains six levels, with sublevels

identified for each.
 Bloom´s Taxonomy

A mnemonic device for remembering the six

levels:

Killing Knowledge
Cats Comprehension
Almost Application
Always Analysis
Seems Synthesis
Evil Evaluation
 Bloom´s Taxonomy
Research over the last 40 years confirms the taxonomy
as a hierarchy with the exception of the last two levels.

Creative Thinking Critical Thinking

Synthesis Evaluation

Analysis
Application
Comprehension

Knowledge
 Bloom´s Taxonomy
The student will define the 6
Knowledge levels of Bloom's taxonomy of
the cognitive domain.

The student will explain the

Comprehension purpose of Bloom's taxonomy
of the cognitive domain.
The student will write an
Application instructional objective for
each level of Bloom's
taxonomy.
 Bloom´s Taxonomy
The student will compare and
Analysis contrast the cognitive and affective
domains.
The student will design a
classification scheme for writing
Synthesis educational objectives that combines
the cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains.
The student will judge the
Evaluation
effectiveness of writing
objectives using Bloom's taxonomy.
 Piaget’s Theory

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th

centuries most influential researchers in the
area of developmental psychology.

Piaget believed that what distinguishes

human beings from other animals is our
ability to do “abstract symbolic reasoning.”
 Piaget’s Theory

Piaget's views are often compared with those

of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who looked
more to social interaction as the primary
source of cognition and behavior.
Piaget believed that biological maturation
establishes the preconditions for cognitive
development. The most important changes
are qualitative (changes in kind) rather than
quantitative (changes in amount).
 Piaget’s Theory

There are two major aspects to his theory:

• the process of coming to know and
• the stages we move through as we gradually
acquire this ability.

Piaget’s training as a biologist influenced both

aspects of his theory.
 Piaget’s Theory

As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how

an organism adapts to its environment
(Piaget described this ability as intelligence.)

Behavior is controlled through mental

organizations called schemes that the
individual uses to represent the world and
designate action.
 Piaget’s Theory

This adaptation is driven by a biological

drive to obtain balance between schemes and
the environment (equilibration).

Therefore, establishing disequilibrium is the

primary motivation for changing one’s
mental structures.
 Piaget’s Theory

Piaget described two processes used by the

individual in its attempt to adapt:
• assimilation and
• accomodation.
Both of these processes are used thoughout life
as the person increasingly adapts to the
environment in a more complex manner.
 Piaget’s Theory

As schemes become increasingly more

complex (i.e., responsible for more complex
behaviors) they are termed structures.
As one's structures become more complex,
they are organized in a hierarchical manner
(i.e., from general to specific).
 Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky developed the sociocultural

theory of cognitive development.

His theory has its roots in the Marxist theory of

dialectical materialism (i. e., historical changes
in society and material life produce changes in
human nature.)
 Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky approached cognitive development

from a process orientation. Rather than looking
at the endpoint of developmental processes, he
looked at the process itself and analyzed the
subject's participation in social activities.

Vygotsky believes the child has two areas of

development:
• Current development
• Zone of proximal development
 Lev Vygotsky

Rather than looking at the endpoint of

developmental processes, Vygotsky looked at the
process itself and analyzed the child's
participation in social activities.
He proposed that development does not precede
socialization. Rather, social structures and social
relations lead to the development of mental
functions.
 Lev Vygotsky

He believed that learning could occur through

play, formal instruction, or work between a
learner and a more experienced learner.

The basic process by which this occurs is

mediation (the connection of two structures, one
social and one personally constructed, through
tools or signs.)
It is when the cultural signs become internalized
that humans acquire the capacity for higher
order thinking.
 Lev Vygotsky

A key assumption made by Vygotsky is that

during the course of development everything
occurs twice.
• The child first makes contact with the social
environment. This occurs on an interpersonal
level.
• Then a child makes contact within himself,
on an intrapersonal level.
 Summary
Information processing—elaboration is the key to
developing a knowledge base
Bloom—elaboration is progressive and leads to
higher levels of knowing
Piaget—biological development establishes
readiness for qualitative change; disequilibrium
sets up the need for adaptation
Vygotsky—social interaction establishes the
basis for learning; social and cultural tools and
signs serve as mediators for learning
The End