Module 4

Module 4
Design of Liners
Definition of a Compacted Clay Liner
• A compacted clay liner is a seepage free
barrier constructed of a cohesive soil that
is compacted to increase its bulk dry-density
and homogeneity.
• The purpose is to reduce porosity and
decrease soil permeability.
• Within the earthen storage structure, the
compacted clay liner is designed to block
seepage of the contained2 liquid.
2
DESIGN CRITERIA
• Compacted clay liners shall be designed for a
saturated hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-7cm/s
or less.
• regulatory authority may require
calculations of specific discharge through
structure and liner system.
• Thickness –minimum acceptable thickness of
a compacted clay liner shall be 1.0 metre as
measured normal to the slope and floor of the
storage structure.
3
DESIGN CRITERIA
• Water Table – Compacted clay liner systems
shall not be constructed below seasonal high
water table or saturated conditions.
• This criteria can be bypassed if there are any
suitable drainage system or arrangements that
counteract any deterioration of liner due to
hydraulic pressure.
4
MATERIAL SUITABILITY
• Specifications for Liner Material –
• Soil samples must be collected to be used as
material for construction of compacted clay
liners to establish its suitability.
• Collected samples must be analyzed in any
suitable laboratory for particle size distribution,
Atterberg limits and Hydraulic Conductivity.
5
• All materials to be used in the construction of a
compacted clay liner shall be analyzed for particle
size distribution following ASTM D2487
and ASTM 422-63, and Atterberg Limits
following ASTM D4318, or any other
method pre-approved by the regulatory agency.
• If distribution of the particle size and the
Atterberg limits fall within the range, material
is considered acceptable for compacted
clay liner, provided that it is installed
using the recommended equipment
6
• Use of materials as defined above with
appropriate construction methodologies and
equipment are expected to produce compacted
clay liners with hydraulic conductivities of
1x10-7cm/s or less.
• Acceptable Particle Size Ranges
– Percent Fines ≥ 50 %
– Clay Content ≥ 20 %;
– Sand Content ≤ 45 %; and
• fines are defined as soil fraction which passes
through a No. 200 (75-μm) standard sieve.
7
• Acceptable Atterberg Limits:
– Plasticity Index (PI): PI ≥ 20%
– Liquid Limit (LL): LL ≥ 30 %
• Poorly graded materials with high silt
content may not be considered acceptable.
• Such materials do not compact well and are
highly erodible.
8
• If the distribution of the particle size classes and
the Atterberg limits do not fall within the
acceptable ranges additional testing will be
required.
• Required Testing for All Materials –
• Standard Proctor test (ASTM D698/IS 2720)
must be conducted to determine maximum dry
unit weight and optimum soil moisture content
for each soil type used for construction of a
compacted clay liner.
9
• Additional Testing – When material to be used
for construction of a compacted clay liner does
not meet all criteria, additional testing is
required to demonstrate that “as-constructed”
clay liner will have a field hydraulic
conductivity of 1 x 10-7cm/s or less.
• Laboratory hydraulic conductivity shall be
determined following ASTM 5084 on no less
than three samples after compaction to at
least 95% standard Proctor maximum dry
density
10
• Hydraulic conductivity required shall be 5x10-
10cm/s or less for material to be considered
suitable for construction of clay liner.
11
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
• Recommended Equipment – recommended
compaction equipment for the construction of a
compacted clay liner is Sheepsfoot Roller
Compactor.
• Many different models of Sheepsfoot Roller
Compactors are available.
• Only those meeting the following criteria
shall be considered acceptable:
• Soil Contact Pressures – The compaction
equipment or rollers shall be ballasted to attain
soil contact pressures of at least 2400 kPa 12
• Tamping Feet Requirement –tamping feet
shall be 200 mm to 250 mm in length from
cylindrical surface .
• Tamping feet shall have a face area between
4500 & 6000 mm2.
• Compactor feet shall be spaced to provide at
least 4 tamping feet for each 0.25 m2 of
cylindrical surface.
13
14
• Equipment Cleaning –Roller shall be equipped
with cleaning mechanism to prevent
accumulation of material between tamping feet
and to allow full penetration of feet through
lift being compacted.
15
Compaction and Permeability Requirements
• The factors that can primarily influence the
permeability of compacted clays are
a) Clay Mineralogy
b) Compaction Moisture Content
c) Method and degree of Compaction
• These factors influence pore size distribution,
particle orientation and structure of compacted
clay, resulting in strength and permeability
variations.
• In addition, freeze-thaw considerations may also
affect strength and permeability of compacted
clay. 16
• Clay minerals compacted on the dry side of OMC
have flocculated structure and when compacted
on wet side, they have a sort of dispersed
structure.
• Flocculated structure results in higher pore
voids exhibiting higher k and more strength as
the soil is drier.
17
• The effect of clay mineralogy on k is shown
below.
18
• This exhibits the fact that Na-saturated soil will
have low k values than those of Ca-saturated
soils, because lower valence Na will yield a
thicker double layer, resulting in a dispersed
structure, whereas higher valence Ca will have a
flocculated structure.
19
• In general, value of k decreases as molding
moisture content increases.
• Test results also show that beyond a certain
level of moisture content, further increase do
not decrease k and even slightly increase
permeability.
• Similarly it was found that kneading compaction
is better efficient than static compaction
20
GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS FOR
WASTE CONTAINMENT
21
Geosynthetic Clay Liners
• thin layer of processed clay (typically bentonite)
either bonded to a geo-membrane or fixed
between two sheets of geotextile.
• geo-membrane is polymeric sheet material
impervious to liquid as long as it maintains its
integrity.
• geotextile is woven or nonwoven sheet material
less impervious to liquid than a geo-membrane,
but more resistant to penetration damage.
22
•
23
• Configuration of GCL affects its performance
characteristics, primary performance factors are
clay quality, amount of clay used per unit area,
and uniformity.
• Bentonite is extremely absorbent, granular clay
formed from volcanic ash.
• Bentonite attracts positively charged water
particles; thus, it rapidly hydrates when exposed
to liquid, such as water or leachate
• As the clay hydrates it swells, giving the ability
to “selfheal” holes in the GCL. 24
• In laboratory tests on bentonite, researchers
demonstrated that a hole up to 75 mm in
diameter will seal itself, allowing GCL to retain
properties that make it an effective barrier
system.
• Bentonite is affixed to synthetic materials in a
number of ways to form the GCL system
• In configurations using a geo-membrane, the
clay is affixed using an adhesive
25
• In geotextile configurations, however, adhesives,
stitch bonding, needle punching, or a
combination of the three, are used.
• Although stitch bonding and needle punching
create small holes in geotextile, these holes are
sealed when installed GCL’s clay layer hydrates.
26
27
Geosynthetic Clay Liners - Properties and
Characteristics
• An important criterion for selecting an effective
landfill barrier system is hydraulic conductivity.
• Before choosing a barrier system, the material
must be tested to check whether the system
under consideration have necessary properties
suited for the site.
28
Characteristics
• Hydraulic Conductivity
– hydraulic conductivity of dry, unconfined bentonite is
approximately 1 x 10-6 cm/sec.
– When saturated, however, hydraulic conductivity of
bentonite typically drops to less than 1 x 10-9 cm/sec.
– Quality of clay used, affects a GCL’s hydraulic
characteristics.
– Sodium bentonite, a naturally occurring compound in
a silicate clay formed from volcanic ash, gives
bentonite its distinct properties.
– Additives are used to enhance hydraulic properties of
clay containing low amounts of sodium bentonite.
29
Characteristics
– Hydraulic performance also relates to the amount of
bentonite per unit area and its uniformity.
– The more bentonite used per unit area, the lower the
system’s hydraulic conductivity.
– Although the amount of bentonite per-unit area
varies with the particular GCL, manufacturers
typically use 1 pound per square foot.
– As a result, the hydraulic conductivity of most GCL
products ranges from about 1 x 10-5 cm/sec to less
than 1 x 10-12 cm/sec.
30
Characteristics
– permeability of finished GCL products depends on a
combination of factors, including
• type and amount of bentonite,
• amount of additives,
• type of geosynthetic material, and
• product configuration (i.e., method of affixing
geosynthetic to the clay).
31
Characteristics
• Shear Strength and Other Characteristics
– Depending on the configuration of the barrier
system, GCL can provide considerable shear strength
(i.e., maximum stress a material can withstand
without losing structural integrity).
– In particular, a geotextile-backed GCL, with bentonite
affixed via stitchbonding, provides additional
internal resistance to shear in the clay layer.
– Needlepunching yields an stronger, more rigid
barrier.
– In addition, needlepunching requires use of a non-
woven geotextile on at least one side
32
Characteristics
• Shear Strength and Other Characteristics
– Both needlepunching and stitchbonding, however,
tend to increase the cost of the GCL product.
– Needlepunching, in particular, adds to a GCL’s cost,
because nonwoven geotextiles are generally more
expensive than woven geotextiles.
33
Geosynthetic Clay Liners - Performance Factors
– Available data on hydraulic conductivity of various
GCL configurations are gathered exclusively under
laboratory conditions.
– Data from field tests should be collected to establish
product design values
34
• Bearing Capacity
– The study demonstrated that an adequate layer of
cover soil (according to the product manufacturers’
recommendations), placed on GCLs during
installation, prevents a decrease in liner thickness
with the application of a load.
– Without a sufficient soil layer, GCLs become
compressed, raising their hydraulic conductivity (i.e.,
making them more permeable) and reducing their
effectiveness as a barrier.
35
• Freeze and Thaw Cycles
– Freeze and thaw cycles do not affect GCLs used in
landfill bottom liner applications as these systems
are installed below frost line.
– Hydraulic conductivity of GCLs is not affected by
freeze and thaw cycles.
– Laboratory tests performed on a bentonitic blanket
indicate that hydraulic conductivity before freezing
of 2 x 10-11 cm/sec was unaltered after five freeze
and thaw cycles.
36
Geosynthetic Clay Liners – Effect of Chemicals
• High concentration of chemicals such as strong
acids, bases and hydrocarbons can affect the
value of k in GCL
• GCLs have maintained their integrity when
exposed to leachates from solid waste landfills
37
• Hydraulic Equivalency
– If water with head (h) ponded on top of a low
permeability layer with permeability (k) and
thickness (t), the steady downwards flux or velocity
of water (v) is given by
– Where i is the hydraulic gradient and k is the

hydraulic conductivity of low-permeability layer
38
• Hydraulic Equivalency
– Koerner and Daniel evaluated hydraulic equivalency
of GCL and CCL by equating their fluxes and formed
the following relationships for GCL and CCL in terms
of steady flux of water.
– Based on this relation, we can calculate that for a

600mm thick CCL with value of k ≤1 x 10-7 cm/s, the
equivalent GCL is about 7 mm thick (after
hydration), should have a k value of 3.4 x 10-9+ cm/s
39
COVER AND GAS COLLECTION
SYSTEMS
40
Final Cover
• After the base and side liner systems are in
place, landfill operation begins.
• Landfilling operation consists of refuse filling,
refuse compaction and application of daily
cover.
• After the landfill cell is completely filled with
refuse, to the final permitted elevation, the final
cover system is placed over the completed area.
41
42
Purpose and Design Criteria
• Purpose of final cover for landfills are:
– Minimize infiltration of precipitation into refuse and
thereby minimize leachate generation and lower
costs for leachate treatment.
– Minimize hydraulic head on liner system, leading to
low potential for sub-surface contamination.
– Resist erosion due to wind or runoff.
– Control migration of landfill gases or enhance gas
recovery
– Separate refuse from vectors such as animals,
insects and rodents.
– Improve aesthetics. 43
• Design Criteria
i. Low permeability to limit infiltration and enhance
surface drainage.
ii. Durability to avoid erosion, desiccation, freeze-
thaw problems, burrowing animals, root
penetration,
iii. Flexibility to accommodate large differential
settlements and localized subsidence without
cracking, and
iv. Stability of slopes
44
• To meet design criteria, cover system should be
as given in figure.
45
• Depending on site-specific conditions, a cover
my consist of all or some of the layers
• Erosion layer could be vegetated top soil,
asphalt, or cobbles.
• Protective soil layer may be specified between
erosion, and drainage layer.
• Drainage layer could be natural materials such
as sand and gravel or geocomposites.
• Barrier layer or infiltration layer may consist of
one or combination of CCL, FML and GCL.
46
• Gas collection layer may consist of natural
materials such as sand or gravel, synthetic
materials such as geotextiles, geocomposites etc.
47
Regulatory Minimum requirements
• Final cover must consist of an erosion layer
underlain by an infiltration layer.
• Infiltration layer must be atleast 460mm thick
earthen material with permeability less than or
equal to the permeability of any bottom liner or
no greater than 1 x 10-5 cm/s.
• This means that a composite liner must be used
on the cover, if one is used in the base liner.
• Erosion layer must consist of a minimum
thickness of 150mm earthen material capable of
sustaining plants. 48
Regulatory Minimum requirements
• Final cover must consist of an erosion layer
underlain by an infiltration layer.
• Infiltration layer must be atleast 460mm thick
earthen material with permeability less than or
equal to the permeability of any bottom liner or
no greater than 1 x 10-5 cm/s.
• This means that a composite liner must be used
on the cover, if one is used in the base liner.
• Erosion layer must consist of a minimum
thickness of 150mm earthen material capable of
sustaining plants. 49
Cover system for Hazardous Waste Landfills
50
• As shown in figure, minimum requirements for
a hazardous waste landfill final cover system
from top to bottom:
– Minimum 2-ft thick vegetated topsoil layer (graded
at a slope between 3 and 5%)
– Soil or geosynthetic filter layer to prevent soil or a
root system from clogging underlying drainage layer.
– Drainage layer consisting of either a minimum 1 ft
thick granular layer with minimum hydraulic
conductivity of 1 x 10-2 cm/s or equivalent
geocomposite.
51
• As shown in figure, minimum requirements for
a hazardous waste landfill final cover system
from top to bottom:
– A minimum 0.5mm geomembrane liner
– Minimum 24 inch thick low permeability soil layer
with a maximum hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-7
cm/s
52
Design Procedure – Layout and Grading
• First step in design of final cover system is to
decide on layout and grading of cover system.
• This depends on waste capacity, waste
settlements, regulatory requirements,
operational and maintenance concerns,
environmental and aesthetic concerns, surface
water drainage structures, cover component
limitations and stability concerns.
53
Landfill final cover configuration a). Above ground landfill b). Pit-type landfill
54
• The cover systems depend on type of landfill,
either above ground or pit-type landfill.
• Slope of final cover may be divided into side
slopes and top deck
• Side slopes are made as steep as possible,
making sure that construction and maintenance
can be achieved easily.
• Typical slope of 2H:1V is used, if cover consist of
soil layers only.
55
• Slopes have to be flatter (equal to or flatter than
3H:1V) if geosynthetics are used in cover.
• Top deck consist of an area exceeding 100 ft x
100ft and sloped at 2 to 5%.
• final slope is selected based on detailed slope
stability analysis.
• Refuse may settle upto 20% and therefore must
be accounted properly in the final cover grading,
so after settlement, positive grades are
maintained.
56
Design Procedure – Cover Profile and Material
Selection
• For a conventional landfill final cover system,
most important layer in final cover is the barrier.
• This layer may consist of a single layer of
compacted soil, geomembrane, or geosynthetic
clay liner.
• Purpose of this layer is to minimize infiltration
into the waste body.
• Selection of compacted soil, geomembrane and
GCL is based on considerations similar to base
and side liners.
57
Selection
• Unlike base and side liner systems, barrier layer
is least subjected to overburden stress and not
exposed to leachate.
• But they will go through subsidence,
desiccation, cracking and freeze-thaw cycles.
• Stress situations such as bridging over
subsidence, and friction between GM and other
cover components should be considered.
58
Selection
• Cover soil overlying barrier layer may consist of
two layers.
• Upper layer or surface layer consists of top
soil to support vegetation, to allow runoff
during rain and prevent erosion
• If vegetation is unsuitable, stones and cobbles
may be used in this layer to prevent wind
induced erosion.
• Bottom (or protective) layer should consist of
soils that are capable of sustaining nonwoody
plants, have adequate water retention capacity59
Selection
• It should be deep to allow for expected long-
term erosion losses
• Medium textured soil such as loam may be used.
• Cover soil slope should be uniform and at least
3% and should not allow erosion gullies to form.
• Slopes greater than 5% promotes erosion so
least recommended
60
Selection
• Drainage layer is often used between barrier
layer and cover soil.
• It is designed to minimize time the infiltrated
water is in contact with barrier layer and hence
the potential for water seepage.
• Water that filters through the cover soil is
intercepted and rapidly moved to exit drain.
• This is essential so as to ensure that there is no
buildup of hydrostatic pressure
61
Selection
• Drainage layer can consist of granular soils,
geosynthetic drainage materials, other
permeable materials like shredded rubber tyres
or glass.
• If granular soils such as sand and gravel are
used, they should be atleast 30 cm thick with
hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-2cm/s or
greater.
62
Selection
• Between drainage layer and cover soil a
geotextile filter fabric is used to prevent
drainage layer from clogging by the fines from
cover soil layer.
• Design of filter fabric is similar to that used for
design of filter fabric between leachate drainage
layer and refuse at the bottom of landfill.
63
Selection
• Gas collection layer may be needed on a site
specific basis.
• This layer is located above the refuse and below
barrier layer.
• Coarse grained materials, or alternative
materials, similar to those used in drainage
layer may be used as a gas collection layer.
• Perforated horizontal venting pipes may be used
to channel gases to a vertical risers located at
high points to promote gas ventilation.
64
Selection
• to prevent clogging, a geotextile filter fabric can
be used between gas collection layer and barrier
layer.
• As an alternative to horizontal venting pipes in
gas collection layer, vertical standpipe gas
collectors may be built as the landfill is being
filled with refuse.
65
66
67
68
STABILITY OF LANDFILLS
69
Slope Characteristics in Landfill Site
• Ensuring landfill stability is the major
geotechnical approach during the operation
and aftercare of landfills.
• The stability depends on various parameters
such as
– waste composition,
– waste compaction,
– climate conditions,
– landfill geometry,
– ground stability and
– pore water pressure 70
71
landfill failure - Maine (USA), 1989
72
landfill failure - Payatas (Philippines), 2000
73
Stable slope - Goettingen (Germany), 1996
• Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a composite
material.
• The strength characteristic is similar to other
composite materials such as Reinforced Earth.
• In those materials shear strength is generated
by an interaction of friction and tensile forces.
• The tensile forces are incorporated by the fibers
and foils the MSW contains.
• Those components generate a reinforcement
effect.
74
• The contribution of the reinforcement to shear
resistance is called fiber-cohesion.
• In total, the shear strength consists of cohesion,
friction (related to granular components) and
fiber-cohesion (related to reinforcement
materials).
• This interaction of different sources of shear
resistance has some specific consequences to
the behavior of MSW
75
• Other than friction forces, reinforcement effects
are anisotropic and non-linear.
• reinforcement components (fibers, foils, sheets)
are placed mostly in horizontal direction.
• Incorporation of tensile forces depends on the
angle between main fiber direction (horizontal)
and displacement.
• Developing of fiber-cohesion follows the same
characteristic.
76
• Due to this anisotropy effect, the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion is not valid.
• Evaluation of triaxial compression test does not
deliver a correct Mohr envelope.
• Some more obstacles arise for geotechnical
testing methods when applied to MSW.
• Since the development of fiber-cohesion is
limited by the tensile strength of the fibers, the
total shear strength is not continuously
increasing with normal stress, but also
restricted. 77
• Therefore, it is not reliable to extrapolate shear
strength using testing results in lower range of
normal stress.
• The different character of friction and fiber-
cohesion in stress-strain behaviour requires
distinguished testing procedures and methods.
78
• Slope stability in the landfill has two cases
a) One in the fill condition, and
b) Other in a cut conditions.
• During the waste disposal process, the condition
of the slope of the landfill site is in the fill stage.
• How high can garbage be piled to stand up
without slope failure?
• The critical height (H) of the slope is important.
79
80
• When an abandoned landfill site is to be used
for other construction, it may require excavation
and in such cases, the slope angle (β) of the cut
is important.
• In general, landfill slope failure modes are
similar to the slope failure in earth slopes.
• The type of failure also include falls, topples,
slips, and slides.
• Fall and topples are due to lack of cohesion
between two loose refuse pieces.
81
Slope Failure Modes
• Slope failure potential is directly related to the
compaction control during the waste disposal
process.
• The better control of compaction, the less risk
for slope failures.
• Following figures illustrate some typical landfill
failure modes.
82
1. Differential decomposition due to weathering
83
2. Lack of cohesion between two or more refuse materials
84
3.Hydrostatic or environmental force acting on decomposed or loosened refuse pieces.
85
4. Differential decomposition and differential settlement causing slope cracks and fall.
86
5. Chemical/bacteria corrosion of some supported refuse material erodes the support and
results in failure.
87
Slope Stability Analysis
• Stability analysis of slopes in refuse dams or
hazardous waste landfills may require use of a
large computer programs.
• STABLE II and SLOPE are the programs used.
88
Genetic Diagnosis Approach
• Garbage in the landfill site is complex and it
cannot be generalized as a conventional
geotechnical problem.
• Therefore, a genetic diagnosis approach is
proposed (Fang 1955), which may assist in
understanding or solving landfill stability
problems.
89
• The general proposed procedure is explained as
follows:
a) Identify and characterize garbage
b) Evaluate the nature of garbage and engineering
properties.
c) Examine the degree of sensitivity towards
environment and potential decomposition.
90
d) If landfill site is newly established, proper
records must be maintained for the purpose of
future landuse. Records should include sources,
types, amounts, compaction characteristics etc.
e) If it is an old/abandoned landfill, and necessary
records are not available, taking borelogs are
recommended.
f) Other information includes: the age of the refuse
deposit, thickness (or depth), local weather
conditions, groundwater table etc.
91
SOIL REMEDIATION
92
Soil Remediation
• Excavation of contaminated soil, followed by
transportation to and disposal in landfills is the
most common practice.
• Contaminated soil is excavated using
conventional excavating equipments and
transported and disposed in a landfill.
• Prior to disposal, soil may require pre-treatment
to reduce concentration.
• This disposal method is simple, fast and cost-
effective for small volumes of soil and
contamination conditions 93
Soil Remediation
• However, when the contaminated soil quantity
is large and concentration is very high, such
methods are expensive and impractical.
• Also new regulations push for treatment, rather
than disposal and thus lead to development of
numerous remediation techniques.
• Soil remediation techniques can be
implemented either as in-situ or ex-situ.
• In-situ methods treat the contaminated soil in-
place, thus having no need for excavation.
94
Soil Remediation
• In-situ methods cause fewer disturbances to the
site as well as less contaminant exposure to the
personnel and public and are less expensive
than ex-situ methods.
• All ex-situ methods involve excavation of soil
from site.
• Treatment conducted either on site or
transported to another location, treated and
returned.
• Site constraints are critical for successful
application of ex-situ methods. 95
Soil Remediation
• Shallow water table, buildings, overhead power
lines or underground utilities may pose
limitations.
• Some of the techniques we consider are
– Soil washing and
– Bioremediation
96
Soil Remediation – Soil Washing
• Soil washing technology is used to separate
contaminants from excavated soil and to reduce
volume of soil requiring final treatment or
disposal.
• This technique is based on the principle that
contaminants tend to be associated with organic
matter and fine grained soil such as silt and clay.
• Coarse grained particles in the soil mass is
washed and separated first and returned to site.
• This essentially ensures a reduced volume for
treatment. 97
• Concentrated contaminants in fine grained
fraction and wash fluids are treated using any
other remediation such as thermal desorption
and bioremediation or disposed of in a landfill.
• Variety of soil washing processes have been
developed for specific contaminants.
• Following figure depicts a typical soil washing
process.
98
99
• Following excavation, the soil is screened to
separate coarse debris such as rocks and roots.
• Remaining soil may be fluidized or made
pumpable with addition of water
• In scrubbing unit, a water based washing
solution is used to separate soluble
contaminants and fine particles from coarser
soil materials.
• Surface contamination is removed from coarse
fractions by solution and by abrasive scouring
action. 100
• Scrubbing action also disintegrates soil clumps,
freeing contaminated fine particles from larger
grains.
• This can be enhanced by addition of chemical
additives, for example acidic wash solutions may
be used to solubilize lead or other metals
derived from waste oil.
• Foaming agents may also be added.
• Following washing, soil slurry undergoes a
separation step in which water, cleaned coarser
material and contaminated fines are separated
101
• Suspended fines may be flocculated and
separated by gravity means or may be removed
in a vacuum filter press.
• Clean soil is then returned to excavation.
• Scrubbing solutions are partially recycled.
• Nonrecycled washing solutions are treated
using conventional wastewater treatment
technologies.
• Residuals from waste water treatment may then
be combined with contaminated fines and sent
for treatment or disposal. 102
• Soil washing is effective for treating
contamination with a variety of organic or
inorganic contaminants.
• Studies have indicated good to excellent
applicability of process for removal or VOCs and
metals from sand and gravelly soils.
• Soil washing is less effective with silt or clayey
soil.
• More effective for soil having high hydraulic
conductivities.
103
• If contaminants adsorb strongly, soil washing is
not effective.
• At present, soil washing is included as
pretreatment.
• Soil washing may not be cost-effective unless
the site contains atleast 500 tons of
contaminated soil.
104
Soil Washing - Advantages
• This process reduces volume of contaminated
soil in that the contaminants are concentrated in
a small mass of soil. This process causes a
volume reduction of about 90%
• Closed system unaffected by external
conditions. This control conditions such as pH
and temperature.
• Allows contaminated soil to be excavated and
treated on-site. Clean soils can be backfilled at
the same site
105
Soil Washing - Advantages
• Potential to remove both organic and inorganic
contaminants.
• High capacity, that is about 70 tons of soil per
hour.
• Relatively few permits are required to employ
this method.
106
Soil Washing - Disadvantages
• Ineffective for soil containing 30 to 50% of silt,
clay, organic matter. Contaminants tend to bind
readily, chemically or physically to silt, clay and
organic material. Silt, clay and organic material
in turn bind to sand and gravel. When there is
large amount of clay or organic material,
contaminants attach to soil and are more
difficult to remove.
• Relatively expensive due to additional cost
associated with treating waste water and air
emissions
107
Soil Washing - Disadvantages
• Complex waste mixtures make treating of wash
fluids difficult.
• Small volumes of contaminated sludge and wash
water remain at the end of treatment which
require further treatment or disposal.
• Exposure if contaminants to the public is
possible as a result of soil excavation and
handling
• A large space is required based on design of soil
washing system.
108
SOIL REMEDIATION
109
Bioremediation
• Process by which micro-organisms degrade
organic contaminants or immobile inorganic
contaminants.
• Under favourable conditions, microorganisms
can degrade organic contaminants completely
into nontoxic by-products such as carbon
dioxide and water or organic acids and methane.
• In natural attenuation process, micro-organisms
occurring in soil (yeast, fungi or
bacteria)degrade contaminants for their
survival. 110
Bioremediation
• Depending on the type of contaminant and its
toxicity levels, specific microbes may be
introduced into the soil to be remediated.
• In addition, for microbial survival and growth,
supply of oxygen, moisture and nutrients may
be needed.
• So bioremediation is basically means 2
processes one is enhancement of natural
processes by adding microorganisms to the soil
referred to as bioaugumentation and
111
Bioremediation
• Supplying oxygen, moisture and nutrients
required for microbial survival and growth
referred to as biostimulation.
• Bioremediation is also known as engineered
bioremediation.
• Bioremediation in the presence of air or oxygen
is called aerobic bioremediation and in the
absence called as anaerobic bioremediation
• Under aerobic conditions, organic contaminants
are converted into carbon dioxide and water.
112
Bioremediation
• Under anaerobic conditions, organic
contaminants are converted into methane,
limited amounts of carbon dioxide and traces of
hydrogen.
• Aerobic bioremediation is faster than anaerobic
process and therefore, preferred.
• Bioremediation can be accomplished under in-
situ conditions or ex-situ conditions.
• In most sites, micro-organisms naturally exist
that are capable of degrading the contaminants.
113
Bioremediation
• But environmental conditions limit them.
• Supplying oxygen, moisture and nutrients to the
contaminated soil activates the micro-organisms
for degrading contaminants.
• For ensuring degradation, it has to be ensured
that oxygen, moisture and nutrient
concentrations are maintained in sufficient
amounts.
• Monitoring can be done by means of monitoring
wells and by measuring concentrations of
carbon dioxide and oxygen. 114
Bioremediation
• Increase in biological activity will be marked by
decrease in oxygen concentration and increase
in carbon dioxide concentration.
• Commonly used for treating soil contaminated
with organic compounds.
• Petroleum hydrocarbons can be easily treated
using biormediation
• Some organic compounds are resistant to
degradation due to their high level of toxicity to
microbial population.
115
Bioremediation
• In such cases, specific microbes tolerant to this
toxicity are required for the purpose.
• Bioremediation cannot degrade inorganic
contaminants such as heavy metals, but can be
used to change the valence state.
• Converting the valance state makes the metals
immobile.
• For example, microbes can convert mobile
hexavalent chromium into immobile trivalent
chromium.
116
Bioremediation
• Bioremediation can be used in any type of soil
with adequate moisture content, though it may
be difficult to supply oxygen and nutrients is
low permeable soil.
• High concentration of contaminants may be
toxic to microbes
• Before implementing bioremediation, a
feasibility study must be conducted for site
specific and contaminant conditions.
117
Bioremediation - Advantages
• It may result in complete degradation of organic
compounds to non-toxic by-products.
• Minimum mechanical equipment requirements.
• It can be implemented as in-situ or ex-situ
process. In situ safer as excavation is not required. It do
not disturb natural surroundings as well.
• Low cost, compared to other remediation
techniques.
118
Bioremediation - Disadvantages
• Potential for partial degradation to equally toxic,
more mobile by-products.
• Process is highly sensitive to toxins and
environmental conditions
• Extensive monitoring required to determine
biodegradation rates.
• Difficult to control volatile organic compounds
during an ex-situ bioremediation process
• Generally require longer treatment time than
other remediation technologies.
119

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– Based on this relation, we can calculate that for a

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