CHE 310

Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics II

Professor Wan Lee

Spring 2020
 Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to
Flow Processes
• Thermodynamics of flow is based on the mass, energy and entropy balances
developed in Ch’s 2 and 5.
• Subject of this chapter – the application of these balances to specific
processes.
• Intent of this chapter is to:
- Develop the thermodynamic equations applicable to one-dimensional steady-state
flow of compressible fluids in conduits.
- Apply these eq’s to flow in pipes and nozzles.
- Treat throttling processes – flow through restrictions
- Calculate the work produced by turbines and expanders
- Examine compression processes as produced by compressors, pumps, blowers, fans,
and vacuum pumps
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• Problems
  such as sizing of pipes and shaping of nozzles are of fluid
mechanics, and not part of thermodynamics.
• However, thermodynamics does not have eq’s with changes in P, u (vel), A
(cross-sectional area), H, S, and V of a flowing stream.
• Consider the adiabatic, s-s, 1-D flow of a compressible fluid in the absence of
and of PE. First we need to derive and apply the pertinent thermodynamic eq’s
to flow in pipes and nozzles.
• Eq (2.31) with , and set to zero,

In differential form: (7.3)

Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• Continuity
  eq, Eq. (2.26, ) holds since is const.
• Its differential form is: or (7.4)
• The fundamental property relation appropriate to this application is:
(6.9)
• Eliminating and from Eq. (7.4) by Eqs. (7.5, ) and (7.6, ) gives:
(7.7)
where is a Mach number (ratio of the speed of the fluid in the duct to the
speed of sound in the fluid, . Eq. (7.7) relates to and .
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
•  Eqs. (7.6, ) and (7.7, ) are combined to eliminate :
(7.8)
• If the length is , then each of the eqs of flow may be divided by . Then eqs (7.7)
and (7.8) become:
(7.9)
(7.10)
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• According
  to the 2nd law, the irrev. due to fluid friction in adiabatic flow cause
entropy increase:

Pipe Flow
• For const cross-sectional area , and we may rewrite eqs. (7.9) and (7.10) as:

• for subsonic flow, . All terms on the right sides of these eqs are positive
and
thus P dec and the vel inc in the direction of flow
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Example 7.1
For the s-s, adiabatic, irrev flow of an incompressible liq in a horizontal pipe of
const cross-sect area, show that:
a) The vel is const
b) The T inc in the direction of flow.
c) The P dec in the direction of flow.
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
•Nozzles
 
• In a properly designed nozzle the area
changes with length in such a way as to
make the flow nearly frictionless. For rev
flow, the rate of entropy inc approaches
zero, and . Then eqs (7.9) and (7.10)
become:
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
•Nozzles
 
• The characteristics of flow depend on whether the flow is subsonic or
supersonic . Some cases are summarized in Table 7.2.
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
•Nozzles
  (cont’d)
• The relation of vel to P in an isentropic nozzle can be expressed analytically for
the i-g state and const heat capacities. Combining eqs (6.9) and (7.3) for
isentropic flow gives:

• Integration, w/nozzle entrance and exit conditions denoted by 1 and 2, yields:

(7.11)
with , and , solution for the P ratio at the throat gives:
(7.12)
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Example 7.2
A high-vel nozzle is designed to operate with steam at 700 kPa and 300C. At the
nozzle inlet the vel is 30 m/s. Calculate values of the ratio A/A 1 (where A1 is the
cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet) for the sections where the P is 600, 500,
400, 300, and 200 kPa. Assume that the nozzle operates isentropically.
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• 
Throttling Process
• A flow is said to be throttled when it flows through a restriction (such as an orifice, a
partially closed valve, or a porous plug) without any appreciable KE or PE.
• When a fluid flows through a restriction, the primary result of the process is a P drop in
the fluid. Such a throttling process produces no shaft work, and in the absence of heat
transfer, eq. (2.31) reduces to:
or
- Const enthalpy – since H in i-g state depends only on T, throttling process does not
change T in this state.
- For most real gases at moderate condition, a reduction in P at const H results in a
dec in T, but small dec.
• Throttling of wet steam to low P causes liq to evaporate and vap to become
superheated. If wet steam at 1000 kPa (tsat=179.88ºC) with a quality 0.96 is throttled to
101.325 kPa…
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
•Throttling
  Process (cont’d)
• If a sat liq is throttled to a lower P, some of the liq vaporizes or flashes,
producing a mix of sat liq and sat vap at lower P. If a sat liq water at 1000 kPa
(tsat=179.88ºC) is flashed to 101.325 kPa (tsat=100ºC), =762.6 kJ/kg
• At 101.325 kPa the quality of the resulting steam is found from Eq. (6.96a, )
with .
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.2 Turbines (Expanders)
• Expansion
  of a gas in a nozzle to produce a high-vel stream is a process that
converts U into KE, which in turn is converted into (when the stream impinges
on blades attached to a rotating shaft).
- Result – conversion of the U of a high-P stream into
- When steam provides the motive force (in most power plants), the device is called
turbine (Fig. 7.3: s-s flow through a turbine or expander)
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.2 Turbines (Expanders)
•  Eqs (2.30) and (2.31) are e. bal’s across an expander.

for turbines, PE, Q – negligible, inlet and exit vel’s roughly equal
then (7.13)
(7.14)
- , anad are fixed.
- in eq (7.14), only is known – both and are unknown
- so e. bal alone is not enough to solve for those 2 unknowns
- if the fluid in turbine expands reversibly and adiabatically, the process is
isentropic () – this fixes the final state of the fluid and determines
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.2 Turbines (Expanders)
•   then (7.13)
(7.14)
- for this case, (7.15)
- the shaft work - the maximum work obtained; actual turbines produce less
work (irrev).
- turbine efficiency:
- by eqs (7.14) and (7.15), (7.16)
- efficiency in the range from 0.7 to 0.8
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.2 Turbines (Expanders)
•   diagram in Fig. 7.4 shows an actual
expansion in a turbine and a rev. expansion
for the same intake (inlet) conditions and the
discharge (outlet) .
• dashed vertical (isentropic) line from point 1
@ to 2’ @ – rev path
• Solid line from point 1 to 2 – actual irrev path
• Irrev’s cause inc in S.
Chapter 7: Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.2 Turbines (Expanders)
•Example
  7.6
A steam turbine w/ rated capacity of 56,400 kW (56,400 kJ/s) operates with
steam at inlet conditions of 8600 kPa and 500 ºC, and discharges into a
condenser at a P of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine = 0.75, determine the state of
the steam at discharge and the mass rate of flow of the steam.