ATOMIC SPECTRA

The term 'Spectrum' generally refers to electromagnetic spectrum which includes all the
frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. Earlier, the term was restricted to light only, but later,
it was modified to include other waves too, such as sound waves. Wavelengths range from a
picometer to hundreds of megameters. It includes visible spectrum in its ambit, which deals
with all the wavelengths that are visible to the naked eye. Other types of radiation include radio
waves, gamma rays, X-rays, and so on.

The other types of spectra are energy spectrum, mass spectrum, frequency spectrum, etc. The
important types of spectra generally mentioned in this context are emission spectrum and
absorption spectrum. There are several differences between emission spectrum and absorption
spectrum, other than the uptake or loss of energy. Let us have a look at all of them.
ATOMIC SPECTRA
Light emitted or absorbed by single atoms contributes only very little to the
colours of our surroundings. Neon signs (or other gas discharge tubes) as
used for advertising, sodium or mercury vapour lamps show atomic emission;
the colours of fireworks are due to it. The aurora borealis (northern light) is
very rare at our latitudes, and to appreciate the colours of cosmic objects,
powerful telescopes are necessary. Neon, which gives red colour in a gas
discharge, is a colourless gas. If the light of the sun is spread out into different
colours by a simple glass prism, the narrow absorption lines cannot be seen.

Nevertheless, to understand how the colours which surround us come about,

one needs some basic knowledge on the smallest parts of matter. 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Only with quantum theory atomic structure can be understood. Quantum theory is, so to say,
the mathematical formulation of particle–wave duality. While we cannot dive into
mathematical details here, the basic principles shall be sketched.
Waves always have some spatial extension, while one may imagine the elementary, indivisible
particles as being “pointlike”. The fact that these apparently contradictory attributes are
compatible in matter waves and also in light (photons) is hard to understand, but all
experimental data point out that this is the case.
Thus the electrons bound by electric force to an atomic nucleus (which contains almost all of
the atom's mass) must be considered to be waves. Wavefunctions are used to calculate
observable quantities; in particular, the probability to find the (pointlike) particle in some
volume is given by the squared value of the wavefunction integrated over the volume.
The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms. Its nucleus carries one unit of positive
elementary charge and thus binds only one electron to it. Its possible wavefunctions can be
obtained as solutions of the Schrödinger equation. This is described in detail in all textbooks
on quantum mechanics. For us it is important to realize that the electron forms some kind of
standing wave. Some simple examples will be used to demonstrate general properties of
oscillating systems, standing waves in particular.
When energy in the form of light, heat, or chemical agents is given to an element, the
electrons of its atoms accept the energy and go to higher energy levels. However, these
electrons have to emit energy in order to return to their ground state, since the excited state
is unstable. The frequencies of light emitted in such a case constitute the emission
spectrum. When an electron comes down from an excited state to the ground state, it emits
a photon of energy. The energy of this photon depends on the difference between the energy
levels of the excited state and ground state of that electron.

Electrons of an element which are in the ground state may absorb incident energy in order to
reach a higher energy state. The frequencies of light transmitted through this substance,
with dark bands showing absorbed light, constitute the absorption spectrum of the
substance.
TYPES OF ATOMIC SPECTRA
EMISSION SPECTRUM
Emission is the process where a substance gives off or emits radiation when it is heated or treated
chemically. The level of emission of a substance depends on its spectroscopic composition and
temperature.
● The emission spectrum of a gas is represented by a collection of separate colored lines, with dark
spaces between them. The lines are the parts of the spectrum where emission occurs and photons are
emitted, while the dark spaces are the parts where there is no emission, hence the darkness. The
difference in colors is due to the variation of the energy levels of the electrons.
● In case of ionic solutions, the spectrum will consist of discrete colored bands instead of lines, since the
substance here is a compound with different atoms, which together produce complex colors. Emission
spectrum is different for different elements subjected to the same source of energy, due to the
difference in the excitation energies of the different electrons of the substances. This is why the light
emitted by each substance is different.
● The frequency of emission spectrum are frequencies of light that are dependent on the energy of the
emission. The energy of the photons emitted is related to its frequency by the following formula:
E = hʋ
Where E = energy of the photon
h = Planck's constant
ʋ = frequency of the photon
This shows that the frequency of a photon is directly proportional to its energy.
● Emission spectra can be divided into two: line spectrum and continuous spectrum. When the
spectrum appears as a series of lines, which are separated by black spaces, it is called a line spectrum.
When the spectrum consists of a wide range of colors in a particular wavelength range or interval, it is
called continuous spectrum.
● To identify a substance: Every substance emits lights of different wavelengths. To identify
the given substance, light is focused on it or the substance is heated. This causes the
electrons to get excited and jump to a higher orbit. The energy emitted by these electrons
while returning to their ground states is compared to the characteristic colors of the
elements, and the chemical composition of the substance is determined.
● To study the composition of stars: The emission spectra of stars can be recorded and then
compared with standard emission spectra of known elements to determine their chemical
composition.
ABSORBTION SPECTRUM
Absorption is the process where the electrons of a substance absorb or take up the energy wavelengths
incident on them. The atomic and molecular structure of the material governs its level of absorption, along
with the amount of electromagnetic radiation, temperature, solid crystal structure, and intermolecular
interactions.
● The absorption spectrum of an element is represented by a continuous band of colors with separate
dark lines between them. The entire band represents the total light that is focused on the element. The
dark lines are the parts of the spectrum where the electrons absorb light photons, hence, there is absence
of light at these parts. The remaining colored parts of the spectrum represent the parts of the incident light
that has not been absorbed, and hence, appear as wavelength-specific colors.
● The reason for this pattern is that, all electrons of an atom are at different energy levels at any given
time. The energy difference between two energy levels of each electron is different. When light of any
wavelength is focused on these atoms, each electron will absorb only that photon with the same energy as
this energy difference. The rest of the photons are not absorbed, i.e., these photons are scattered. These
dark lines correspond to the same positions where the colored lines of the atom's emission spectrum
would occur.
● Absorption spectra can be measured in terms of their frequency, wavelength, or wave number.
● There are two types of absorption spectra: atomic absorption spectrum and molecular absorption
spectrum. Atomic absorption spectrum is the spectrum obtained when free atoms (generally gases) absorb
wavelengths of light. Molecular absorption spectrum on the other hand is the spectrum that is seen when
molecules of a substance absorb wavelengths of light (generally ultraviolet or visible light).
● To identify a substance and determine its concentration: An unknown substance can be identified by
focusing light of a particular wavelength on it, and then studying the absorption spectrum of the
substance. Since substances absorb light only from a particular wavelength or wavelength range, the
wavelength of light focused on them is important. This spectrum can be compared with a set of reference
values for identification. These reference values are known absorbance values of common elements and
compounds. The concentration of the substance in the sample can also be determined.
● To study the composition of stars: The light emitted by stars and planets passes through their
atmosphere, where some of it is absorbed by the gases. When the absorption spectra of these gases is
recorded and compared to the reference spectra values of gases, the composition of these planets or
stars can be determined.
● Remote sensing: Absorption spectroscopy can be used to collect details of the land, including
attributes such as forest cover, health of forests or exposed rock surfaces, without any individual actually
setting foot on it. When light is focused on the land terrain and its absorption spectra is recorded, it can
be used to extract information about the terrain. This is done by comparing the recorded values with
reference values of absorbance shown by land with forest cover or exposed rock. In fact, the absorbance
values vary depending on the type of the forest, a healthy vegetation will show different values compared
to an unhealthy forest cover. It can also provide details of atmospheric composition.