DENTAL CASTING

ALLOYS
 KEY TERMS
Grain–A microscopic single crystal in the microstructure
of a metallic material.
Metal – An element whose atomic structure readily
loses electrons to form positively charged ions, and
which exhibits metallic bonding (through a spatial
extension of valence electrons), opacity, good light
reflectance from a polished surface and high electrical
and thermal conductivity.
Noble metal – which are highly resistant to oxidation
and dissolution in inorganic acids. Gold and platinum
group metals (Platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium and osmium).
Base metal – A metal that readily oxidizes or dissolves
to release ions.
Alloy – A crystalline substance with metallic
properties that is composed of two or more
chemical elements, at least one of which is
metal.
Solid solution (metallic) – A solid crystalline
phase containing two or more elements, at least
one of which is a metal, that are intimately
combined at the atomic level.
Liquidus temperature – Temperature at which an
alloy begins to freeze on cooling or at which the
metal is completely molten on heating.
Solidus temperature – Temperature at which an
alloy becomes solid on cooling or at which the
metal begins to melt on heating.
PERIODIC TABLE
INTERATOMIC PRIMARY BONDS

Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
1. IONIC BOND FORMATION
Characterized by electron
transfer from one element (positive)
to another (negative).
 2. COVALENT BOND
FORMATION
Characterized by electron
sharing and very precise bond
orientations.
3. METALLIC BOND FORMATION
INTERATOMIC SECONDARY BONDS

VAN DER WAALS FORCES

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Stress
When a force is applied to a material there is a
resistance in the material to the external force.
The force is distributed over an area and the
ratio of the force to the area
is called stress.
STRESS= F/A

Strain
The change in length or deformation per unit
length when a material is subjected to a stress
is defined as strain.
 STRESS vs STRAIN CURVE
If one plots stress vs. strain on a graph, a stress-
strain curve will result. The properties of various dental
materials, such as alloys, can be compared by
analysis of their respective stress-strain curves.

P = Elastic modulus or
Proportional Limit

X = Ultimate Strength

Modulus of Elasticity
Yield strength
 STRENGTH
It is the maximal stress required to fracture a structure.
Types of Strength:
- Compressive
- Tensile
- Shearing
TOUGHNESS
It is defined as the energy requiredto
fracture a material. It is a property of
the material which describes how
difficult the material wouldbe to break.

DUCTILITY
It is the ability of a material to withstand permanent
deformation under a tensile load without rupture. A
metal may be drawn readily into a wire and is said
to be ductile. Ductility is dependent on tensile
strength.

MALLEABILITY
It is the ability of the material to withstand rupture
under compression, as in hammering or rolling
into a sheet. It is not dependent on strength as is
ductility.
 COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
(Linear Coefficient Of
Expansion )
Change in length per unit of original length of a material
when its temperature is raised 1 ° K
HARDNESS
In mineralogy the hardness is described on the
basis of the material to resist scratching. In
metallurgy and in most other fields, the amounts
of the resistance of indentation is taken as the
measure of hardness for the respective
material).
Brinell hardness number ( BHN )
Rockwell hardness number ( RHN )
Vickers hardness test (VHN )
Knoop hardness test ( KHN )
 TARNISH AND CORROSION
High-noble alloys used in
dentistry are so stable chemically that
they do not undergo significant
corrosion in the oral environment; the
major components of these alloys are
gold, palladium and platinum. (Iridium,
osmium, rhodium and ruthenium are
also classified as noble metals.) Silver
is not considered noble by dental
standards, since it will
react with air, water and sulfur to form
silver sulfide, a
dark discoloration product.
Gold resists chemical attack very
well. Thus
noble metalit was
wasnatural that this
employed mostin
early
modern dental history for the
construction of dental
appliances.
TARNISH is observable as a surface discoloration on a metal, or
as a slight loss or alteration of the surface finish or luster. In the
oral environment, tarnish often occurs from the formation of hard
and soft deposits on the surface of the restoration. Calculus is the
principal hard deposit, and its color varies from light yellow to
brown. The soft deposits are plaques and films composed mainly
of microorganisms and mucin. Stain or discoloration arises from
pigment-producing bacteria, drugs containing such chemicals as
iron or mercury and adsorbed food debris.

CORROSION is not merely a surface deposit. It is a process in

which deterioration of a metal is caused by reaction with its
environment. Frequently, the rate of corrosion attack may actually
increase over time, especially with surfaces subjected to stress,
with intergranular impurities in the metal or with corrosion products
that do not completely cover the metal surface.
Sulfur is probably the most significant factor causing surface
tarnish on casting alloys that contain silver, although chloride has
also been identified as a contributor.
 1. Chemical or Dry Corrosion

In this the metal reacts to form oxides, sulphides in

the absence of electrolytes

2. Electrochemical or Wet Corrosion

a. Galvanic corrosion b. Heterogeneous Surface Composition

Difference in potential

c. Stress Corrosion

Occurs due to fatigue or cyclic loading

d. Concentration Cell Corrosion or Crevice Corrosion

• Pitting type (Oxygen concentration cell)

• Cervical type (Electrolyte concentration cell)

PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION
i. Passivation
ii. Increase noble metal content
iii. Polishing restorations
iv. Avoid dissimilar metal restorations

Certain metals readily form strong adherent oxide film on

their surface, which protects them from corrosion. Such a metal
is said to be passive. Chromium, titanium and aluminium are
examples of such metals. Since this film is passive to oxidative
chemical attack, their formation is called passivation.

 Chromium provides this corrosion resistance by forming a

very thin, adherent surface oxide that prevents the diffusion of
oxygen or other corroding species to the underlying bulk metal.If
more than 12% Cr is added to iron or cobalt, we get stainless
steel or cobalt chromium alloys, which are lightly corrosion
resistant and therefore suitable for dental use.
 Noble metals resist corrosion
because their electromotive force
is positive with regard to any
common
of the reduction reactions found in
the oral environment. In order to
corrode noble metal under such
a
conditions, an external current (over
potential) is required.

 At least half the atoms should be

noble metals (gold, platinum, and
palladium) to ensure against corrosion.
Palladium has been found to be
effective in reducing the susceptibility
to sulfide tarnishing for alloys
containing silver.
 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE:
Only metals with the same type of crystal structure can
form a complete series of solid solutions.
The simplest alloy is a solid solution, in which atoms of
two metals are located in the same crystal structure such as
body-centered cubic (bcc), face-centered cubic (fcc) and
hexagonal close-packed (hcp).
 SOLIDIFICATION
AND
CRYSTALLIZATION OF
METALS
 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS

The temperature decreases steadily from point A to

point B' . An increase in temperature then occurs from point
B' to point B, at which time the temperature remains
constant until the time indicated at point C is reached.
Subsequently, the temperature of the metal decreases
steadily to room temperature.
 CRYSTALLIZATION OF METALS
Nuclei of
crystallisation
Free energy
Grain
Homogenous
nucleation

Embryo- cluster of atoms that have same

arrangement as long range atomic order
and forms- NUCLEI OF CRYSTALLISATION
Grain- crystal formed
Grain Boundaries- Higher energy
Equiaxed- three dimensions of each grains are similar
Grain size- sudden cooling
Poly crystalline
Homogeneous nucleation

Cooled below super cooling / increased rate of cooling

No impurities
Smaller size of nuclei
Heterogeneous nucleation
Addition of particles to wet
Surface energy reduced
Walls, dust
Dendritic structure
Cores-
Matrix- darker
Hot tears-
Grain refinement

Ru, Ir, Re
Fine grain size- higher yield strength
Rate of cooling
Shape of mould
Composition of alloy
Alloys
Binary
Ternary
Solid solution: homogenous, grains resemble pure metals under
microscope
Ag in Pd
Solvent : more than 50% of space lattice
Substituitional
Interstitial
Alloy system: Aggregate of two or more metals in all possible
combinations

Phase: any physically distinct, homogeneous and mechanically

separable portion of a system
ATOM SIZE:
If the sizes of two metallic atoms differ by less than
approximately 15%

VALENCE:

CHEMICAL AFFINITY:

LATTICE TYPE:
Why do we alloy?
Distortion of space lattice-
 EQUILIBRIUM
PHASE DIAGRAM
FOR ALLOYS
EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAM FOR ALLOYS

 Liquidus temperature

 Solidus temperature

 Liquidus
 Liquidus temperature – Temperature at
which an alloy begins to freeze on cooling
or at which the metal is completely molten
on heating.
Solidus temperature – Temperature at
which an alloy becomes solid on cooling
or at which the metal begins to melt on
heating.
 CORING
Cored structure- normal cooling
Dendrites have different compositions
First formed have more of higher melting alloy
Matrix – lower melting alloys
 HOMOGENIZATION
For homogenization heat treatment, the cast alloy is
held at a temperature near its solidus to
achieve the maximum amount of diffusion without
melting. (This process required 6 hr. for the alloy).
Ductility is increased
 EUTECTIC ALLOYS

Invariant transformation-
SILVER-COPPER SYSTEM:
The phase diagram for this system is presented in where 3 phases are
found:
• A liquid phase (L)
• A silver-rich substitutional solid solution phase () containing a small amount
of copper atoms.
• A copper-rich substitutional solid solution phase () containing a small
amount of silver atoms. The  and  phases are sometimes referred to as
terminal solid solutions because of their locations at the left and right sides
of the phase diagram.
Primary grains .
Properties
Lamellar structure-
Hypo eutectic and Hyper eutectic
 PERITECTIC ALLOY

Liquid +  solid solution  solid solution

 SOLID STATE REACTIONS:
Completely soluble in liquid state and at higher temperatures in
solid state- at lower temp, the attraction of solute and solvent atoms
converts random solid solution to ordered solid solution

Fcc- ductile soft-

Orthorhombic
Fct- brittle hard
Volume change-lattice distortion
Structure, strain, slip inhibition-, strength
Equilibrium condition
Bench cooling
Quenching
Heat treatment- metal is elevated to a temperature above
room temperature and held for a length of time

Solution heat treatment/ softening heat treatment

heated below solidus ( 700 C) for 10 min to produce solid
solution and quenched

Age hardening/ hardening heat treatment

heated to ordering range for specific time and quenched
Increasing hardness

1. Strain hardening
2. Finer grain structure
3. Alloying with other metals
4. Heat treatment-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
AND EFFECT OF
NOBLE METALS AND
BASE METALS ON DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS
 NOBLE METALS
The noble metals have been the basis of inlays,
crowns and bridges because of their resistance to corrosion
in the oral cavity.
Gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium, osmium, and silver are the eight noble metals.
However, in the oral cavity, silver is more reactive and
therefore is not considered as a noble metal.
Of the eight noble metals, four are of major
importance in dental casting alloys, i.e., gold, platinum,
palladium and silver. All four have a face-centered cubic
crystal structure and all are white coloured except for gold.
 GOLD

Pure gold is a soft and

ductile metal with
a yellow “Gold”
hue. It has
a density of 19.3
gms/cm3 ,
melting point of 1063oC,
boiling point of 2970 oC and
CTE of 14.2×10-6/°C.
Gold has a
good luster and takes
up a high polish. It
has good
chemical stability
and does not tarnish
Gold content:
Traditionally the gold content of dental casting alloys
have been referred to in terms of:
• Karat
• Fineness
Karat:
It is the parts of pure gold in 24 parts of alloys.
For Eg: a) 24 Karat gold is pure gold
b) 22 Karat gold is 22 parts of pure gold
and remaining 2 parts of other metal.
The term Karat is rarely used to describe gold content in
current alloys.
Fineness:
Fineness of a gold alloy is the parts per thousand of
pure gold. Pure gold is 1000 fine. Thus, if ¾ of the gold
alloy is pure gold, it is said to be 750 fine.
 Physical and mechanical properties of cast pure gold,
gold alloys, and condensed gold foil

Material Density Hardness (VHN/BHN) Tensile Elongation

(g/cm3) (kg/mm2) Strength (%)
(MP
a)
Cast 24k gold 19.3 28(VHN) 105 30
Cast 22k gold -- 60(VHN) 240 22
Coin gold -- 85 (BHN) 395 30
Typical Au-based 15.6 135/195(VHN) 425/525 30/12
casting alloy
(70 wt% Au)*
Condensed gold 19.1 60 (VHN) 250 12.8
foil

* Values are for softened / hardened condition.

 PLATINUM

It increases the strength and

corrosion resistance. It also
increases the melting point
and has a whitening effect on
the alloy. It helps to reduce
the grain size.It has the
highest density 21.45
of gms/cm3 , melting
point of 1769
highest
oC, boiling point

of 4530 oC and the lowest

CTE 8.910-6/oC among the
four precious metals used in
dental casting alloys.
 PALLADIUM
It is similar to platinum in its
effect. It hardens as well as
whitens the alloy. It also raises
the fusion temperature and
provides tarnish resistance. It
is less expensive than
platinum, thus reducing cost of
alloy. It has a density of
12.02gms/cm3. Palladium has
a higher melting point of
1552oC, boiling point of 3980
oC and lower CTE which is
11.810-6/oC, when
compared to gold.
 IRIDIUM, RUTHENIUM
They help to decrease the grain size. They are added in
very small quantities (about 100 to 150 ppm). IRIDIUM
has a high melting point of 2454°C , boiling point of
5300
°C , density of 22.5gm/cm3 and CTE 6.810-6/oC.
RUTHENIUM has a melting point of 1966°C ,
boiling point of 4500 °C , density of 12.44 gm/cm3
and CTE 8.310-6/oC
 SILVER
It is sometimes described
as the “Whitest” of all metals. It
whitens the alloy, thus helping
to counteract the reddish colour
of copper. To a slight extent
it
increases strength and
hardness. In large
however, it amounts
resistance. reduceshas the tarnish
lowest
density 10.4gms/cm
It 3 and
melting point of 961oC, boiling
point of 2216 oC among the four
precious metals used in
dental
casting alloys. Its CTE is
19.710-6/oC , is
which comparatively high.
 BASE METALS
These are non-noble metals. They are invaluable
components of dental casting alloys because of their
influences on physical properties, control of the amount and
type of oxidation, or their strengthening effect. Such metals
are reactive with their environment, and are referred to as
‘base metals’. Some of the base metals can be used to
protect an alloy from corrosion (passivation). Although they
are frequently referred as non precious, the preferred term is
base metal.
Examples of base metals are chromium, cobalt,
nickel, iron, copper, manganese etc.
 COBALT

Imparts hardness,
strength and rigidity to
the alloy . It has a high
melting point of 1495°C
, boiling point of 2900
°C , density of
8.85 gm/cm3 and CTE
13.810-6/oC
 NICKEL
Cobalt and nickel are
interchangeable.It decreases
strength, hardness, modulus
of elasticity and fusion
temperature. It increased
ductility. Bio-incompatibility
due to nickel, which is the
most common metal to
cause Contact Dermatitis. It
has a melting point of
1453°C , boiling point of
2730 °C , density of 8.9
gm/cm3 and CTE 13.310-
6/oC
 CHROMIUM
Itspassivating
effect ensures corrosion
The
resistance. content is
chromiumproportional to
directly
and corrosion resistance.
tarnish It
reduces the melting point. Along
with other elements, it also acts
in solid solution hardening.
Thirty percent chromium is
considered the upper limit for
attaining maximum mechanical
properties. It has melting point
of 1875°C , boiling point of 2665
°C , density of 7.19 gm/cm3 and
CTE 6.210-6/ oC
 COPPER
It is the principal hardener. It
reduces the melting point and
density of gold. If present in
sufficient quantity, it gives the
alloy a reddish colour. It also
helps to age harden gold alloys.
In greater amounts it reduces
resistance to tarnish and
corrosion of gold
the
Therefore, the maximum content
alloy.
should NOT exceed 16%. It has
melting point of 1083°C ,
boiling point of 2595 °C ,
density of
8.96 gm/cm³ and CTE
16.5
 ZINC
It acts as a scavenger for
oxygen. Without zinc the
silver in the alloy causes
absorption of oxygen
during melting.
Later during
solidification, the
oxygen is rejected
producing gas
porosities in the casting.
It has a melting
point of 420°C ,
density of 7.133gm/cm
boiling point of 906 °C 3
and
, CTE 39.710-6/oC
MOLYBDENUM OR
TUNGSTEN

They are effective

hardeners. Molybdenum is
preferred as it reduces
ductility to a lesser extent
than tungsten.
Molybdenum
refines grain
structure. It has melting
point of 2610°C
,
point of 5560 °C , density
boiling
of 10.22 gm/cm3 and CTE
4.9 10-6/oC
 IRON,BERYLLIUM
They help to harden the metal ceramic gold - palladium alloys,
iron being the most effective. In addition, beryllium reduces
fusion temperature and refines grain structure . IRON has
melting point of 1527°C , boiling point of 3000 °C , density of
7.87 gm/cm3 and CTE 12.3 10-6/oC .
 GALLIUM

It is added to
compensate the
for decreasedcoefficient
of thermal
that expansion
when the
results is made silver
alloy
free. The elimination of
silver reduces the
tendency for green
stain at the margin of
the metal-porcelain
interface.
 MANGANESE AND SILICON
Primarily oxide scavengers to prevent oxidation of
other elements during melting. They arealso
hardeners. MANGANESE has melting point of 650°C ,
boiling point of 1107 °C , density of 1.74 gm/cm3
and CTE 25.2 10- 6/oC , where as SILICON has
melting point of 1410°C , boiling point of 2480 °C ,
density of 2.33 gm/cm3 and CTE 7.3 10-6/oC .
 CARBON:
Carbon content is most
critical. Small amounts may
have a pronounced effect on
strength, hardness and
ductility. Carbon
forms
carbides constituents
metallic with any which
of the is
an important factor in
strengthening the
However when excessalloy.it
in
increases brittleness. Thus,
control of carbon content in the
alloy is important. It has
melting point of 3700°C
boiling point , of 4830
density of 2.22 °C gm/cm,3
and CTE 6 10-6/oC .
 BORON

It is a deoxidizer
and hardener, but
reduces ductility.
ALLOYS
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS
 2. ALLOY TYPES BY DESCRIPTION:
By description, these alloys are classified into

A) CROWN AND BRIDGE ALLOYS

This category of alloys include both noble and base metal
alloys that have been or potentially could be used in the
fabrication of full metal or partial veneers.
1. Noble metal alloys:
i)Gold based alloy - type III and type IV gold alloys ,
low gold alloys
ii) Non-gold based alloy-Silver -palladium alloy
2. Base metal alloys:
i) Nickel-based alloys
ii) Cobalt based alloys
3. Other alloys:
i) Copper-zinc with Indium and nickel
ii) Silver-indium with palladium
 B) METAL CERAMIC ALLOY

1. Noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding:

i) Gold-platinum -palladium alloy
ii) Gold-palladium-silver alloy
iii) Gold-palladium alloy
iv) Palladium silver alloy
v) High palladium alloy

2. Base metal alloys for porcelain bonding:

vi)Nickel -chromium alloy
vii)Cobalt-chromium alloy
C) REMOVABLE PARTIAL DENTURE ALLOY

Although type-IV noble metal alloy may be used,

majority of removable partial framework are
made from base metal alloys:

1. Cobalt-chromium alloy
2. Nickel-chromium alloy
3. Cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy
4. Silver-palladium alloy
5. Aluminum -bronze alloy
 Classification of alloys for All-Metal restorations, metal ceramic restorations, and
frameworks for removable partial dentures.
Alloy type All-metal Metal-ceramic Removable partial
dentures
High noble Au-Ag-Cu-Pd Au-Pt-Pd Au-Ag-Cu-Pd
Metal ceramic alloys Au-Pd-Ag (5-12wt% Ag)
Au-Pd-Ag (>12wt%Ag)
Au-Pd (no Ag)
Noble Ag-Pd-Au-Cu Pd-Au (no Ag-Pd-Au-Cu
Ag)
Ag-Pd Pd-Au-Ag Ag-Pd
Metal-ceramic alloys Pd-Ag
Pd-
Cu
Pd-Co
Base Metal Pure Ti Pd-Ga-Ag Pure Ti
Pure Ti
Ti-Al-V Ti-Al-V Ti-Al-V
Ni-Cr-Mo-Be Ni-Cr-Mo-Be Ni-Cr-Mo-Be
Ni-Cr-Mo Ni-Cr-Mo Ni-Cr-Mo
Co-Cr-Mo Co-Cr-Mo Co-Cr-Mo
Co-Cr-W Co-Cr-W Co-Cr-W
4. ALLOY TYPE BY MAJOR ELEMENTS: Gold-based,
palladium-based, silver-based, nickel-based, cobalt-based
and titanium-based .

5. ALLOY TYPE BY PRINCIPAL THREE ELEMENTS: Such

as Au-Pd-Ag, Pd-Ag-Sn, Ni-Cr-Be, Co-Cr-Mo, Ti-Al-V and
Fe-Ni-Cr.

(If two metals are present, a binary alloy is formed; if

three or four metals are present, ternary and quaternary
alloys, respectively, are produced and so on.)

6. ALLOY TYPE BY DOMINANT PHASE SYSTEM:

Single phase [isomorphous], eutectic, peritectic and
intermetallic.
Uses
Desirable properties of Dental Casting Alloys

1. Bio compatibility
2. Tarnish and corrosion resistance
3. Strength requirements
4. Economic
5. Castability
Mechanical properties of casting alloys
Elastic modulus- rigidity, stiffness
Yield strength-
Ductility- clasp
Hardness
Fatigue resistance
Endurance limit
Noble metal alloys
Gold alloys
HIGH GOLD ALLOY:
These alloys contain 70% by weight or more of gold
palladium and platinum. ADA specification No.5 divides this
into four depending upon mechanical properties.

Type I (Soft):-

They are weak, soft and highly ductile, useful only in

areas of low occlusal stress designed for simple inlays such
as used in class I, III & V cavities.
These alloys have a high ductility so they can be
burnished easily. Such a characteristic is important since
these alloys are designed to be used in conjunction with a
direct wax pattern technique. Since such a technique
occasionally results in margins that are less than ideal it is
necessary to use a metal that can be burnished. At present,
these are used very rarely.
PROPERTIES

1. Hardness Tensile VHN (50 – 90)

2. Strength Quite Low
276 MPa or 40,000 PSi
3. Yield Strength 180 MPa or 26,000 PSi
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 1.56% (according to
Anusavice)
5. Elongation or ductility 46% - William O Brien
18% - Anusavice

COMPOSITION

Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
83% 10% 6% - 0.5% balance
 Type II (Medium):-
These are used for conventional inlay or onlay restorations
subject to moderate stress, thick three quarter crowns, pontics and
full crowns. These are harder and have good strength.
Ductility is almost same as that of type I alloy however,
yield strength is higher. Since burnishability is a function of ductility
and yield strength, greater effort is required to deform the alloy.
They are less yellow in color due to less gold.
Properties:
1. Hardness VHN (90-120)
2. Tensile Strength 345 MPa
3. Yield Strength 300 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 1.37%
5. Elongation 40.5% - William O Brien
10% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
77% 14% 7% - 1% balance
 Type III (Hard):

Inlays subject to high stress and for crown and bridge in

contrast to type I and type II, this type can be age
hardened. The type III alloy, burnishing is less important
than strength.
Properties:
1. Hardness(VHN) 120 – 150
2. Tensile Strength 360 MPa
3. Yield Strength 331 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 1.42%
5. Elongation or ductility 39.4% - William O Brien
5% - Anusavice

Composition:
Au Cu Pt PdZn&Ga
9% - 3.5% balance
 Type IV (Extra Hard):

These are used in areas of very high stress, crowns and

long span bridges. It has lowest gold content of all four type (Less
than 70%) but has the highest percentage of silver, copper,
platinium and Palladium. It is most responsive to heat treatment
and yield strength but lowers ductility.

Properties:
1. Hardness VHN (150-200)
2. Tensile Strength 462 MPa
3. Yield Strength 703 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 2.30%
5. Elongation or ductility 17% - William O Brien
3% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd
Zn&Ga
56% 25% 14% - 4%
Type Hardness Proportional Strength Ductility Corrosion
limit
resistance
I

II INCREASES DECREASES

III

IV
 HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD ALLOYS:

Heat treatment of alloys is done in order to

alter its mechanical properties.
Gold alloys can be heat treated if it contains
sufficient amount of copper. Only type III and type
IV gold alloys can be heat-treated.

There are two types of heat treatment.

1. Softening Heat Treatment (Solution heat treatment)

2. Hardening Heat Treatment (Age hardening)

Softening heat treatment

700 degree celcius

10 min
Quenched
Structures that are to be ground or reshaped plastically inside or
outside mouth
Solution heat treatment
Hardening heat treatment

200 - 450 degree Celcius

15 -30 min
Quenched
Metal partial dentures
FPD
METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS
 METAL CERAMIC

ALLOYS4,8,11,15,16,27,31,32,41&43
The main function of metal-ceramic alloys is to
reinforce porcelain, thus increasing its resistance to fracture.
Requirements:
1. They should be able to bond with porcelain.
2.Its coefficient of thermal expansion should be compatible with that of
temperature. It should be able to creep or sag at these
porcelain.
resist temperatures.
3. Its melting temperature should be higher than the porcelain
4.It should not stain or discolor porcelain.
firing
The alloys used for metal-ceramic purposes are grouped under two
categories:
i) Noble metal alloys
ii) Base metal alloys.
In case of noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding , addition of
1% base metals (iron, indium, tin etc.) increases porcelain-metal bond
strength, which is due to formation of an oxide film on its surface. It
also increases strength and proportional limit.
 The Gold-Platinum-Palladium (Au-Pt-Pd) System:

This is one of the oldest metal ceramic alloy system. But these alloys are not
used widely today because they are very expensive.

Composition:
Gold – 75% to
88% Palladium –
Upto 11% Platinum –
Upto 8% Silver – 5%
Trace
elements like Indium,
Iron and Tin for
Advantages Disadvantages
porcelain
1. bonding.
Excellent castability 1. High cost
2. Excellent porcelain bonding 2. Poor sag resistance so not suited
3. Easy to adjust and finish for long span fixed partial dentures.
4. High nobility level 3. Low hardness (Greater wear)
5. Excellent corrosion and tarnish 4. High density (fewer casting per
resistance. ounce)
6. Biocompatible
7. Some are yellow in color
8. Not “Technique Sensitive”
9. Burnishable
 Gold-Palladium-Silver (Au-Pd-Ag) System:

These alloys were developed in an attempt to overcome the major limitations in

the gold-platinum-palladium system (mainly poor sag resistance, low hardness & high
cost)
Two variations on the basic combination of gold, palladium and silver were
created and are identified as either high-silver or low-silver group.

Composition (High Silver Group):

Gold – 39% to 53%

Silver – 12% to 22%
Palladium – 25% to 35%
trace amount of oxidizable elements are added for porcelain bonding.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Less expensive than Au-Pt-Pd alloys 1. High silver content creates potential
2. Improved rigidity and sag resistance. for porcelain discoloration.
3. High malleability. 2. High Cost.
3. High coefficient of thermal
expansion.
4. Less Tarnish and corrosion
Composition (Low Silver Group):

Gold – 52% to 77%

Silver- 5% to 12%
Palladium – 10% to 33%
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements for porcelain bonding.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Less expensive than the Au-Pt-Pd alloys 1. Silver creates potential for porcelain

discoloration (but less than high

silver group)
2. Improved sag resistance 2. High cost.
3. High noble metal content 3. High coefficient of thermal
expansion.
4. Tarnish and corrosive resistant
 Gold-Palladium (Au-Pd) System:

This particular system was developed in an attempt to overcome the major

limitations in the Au-Pt-Pd system and Au-Pd-Ag system. Mainly-
-Porcelain discoloration.
-Too high coefficient of thermal expansion & contraction.

Composition:

Gold – 44% to 55%

Gallium – 5%
Palladium – 35% to 45%
Indium & Tin – 8% to 12%
Indium, Gallium and are the oxidizable elements responsible for porcelain
Tin bonding.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Excellent castability 1. Not thermally compatible with high
expansion dental porcelain.
1. Good bond strength 2. High cost
2. Corrosion and tarnish resistance
3. Improved hardness
4. Improved strength ( sag resistance)
5. Lower density
 Palladium-Silver (Pd-Ag) System8

This was the first gold free system to be introduced in the

United States (1974) that still contained a noble metal
(palladium). It was offered as an economical alternative to the
more expensive gold-platinum-silver and gold-palladium-silver
(gold based) alloy systems.

Composition: (available in two compo.)

1. Palladium – 55% to 60% Silver – 25% to 30%
Indium and Tin
2. Palladium – 50% to 55% Silver – 35% to 40%
Tin (Little or no Indium)

Trace elements of other oxidizablebase elements arealso

present.
 Advantages Disadvantages

1. Low Cost 1. Discoloration (yellow, brown or green) may

2. Low density
3. Good castibility (when torch
casting)
4. Good porcelain bonding,
5. Burnishability
6. Low hardness
7. Excellent sag resistance
8. Moderate nobility level
9. Good tarnish and corrosion
resistance.
10. Suitable for long-span fixed
partial dentures.
occur with some dental porcelains.
2. Some castibility problems reported (with
induction casting)
3. Pd and Ag prone to absorb gases.
4. Require regular purging of the porcelain
furnace.
5. May form internal oxides (yet porcelain
bonding does not appear to be a problem)
6. Should not be cast in a carbon crucible.
7. Non-carbon phosphate bonded investments
recommended.
8. High coefficient of thermal expansion.
 HIGH PALLADIUM SYSTEM8,11,31,32,41&43

Several types of high palladium systems were originally introduced (Tuccillo, 1987).
More popular composition groups contained cobalt and copper.

Composition (PALLADIUM-COBALT ALLOY):

Palladium – 78% to 88% Cobalt – 4% to 10%

(Some high palladium-cobalt alloys may contain 2% gold)
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements (such as gallium and indium) are added for
porcelain bonding.

Advantages
1. Low cost
2. Reportedly good sag resistance
3. Low density means more casting 2. Are more prone to over-heating than
per ounce then gold based alloys.
4.They Melt and cast easily
5. Good polishability (Supposed
to be similar to Au-Pd
alloys)
6. Reportedly easier to presolder
than Pd-Cu alloys.
Disadvantages
1.More compatible with higher expansion
porcelains.
high Pd-Cu.
3. Produces a thick, dark oxide
4. Colored oxide layer may cause bluing of the
porcelain.
5. Prone to gas absorption
6.Little information on long-term clinical
success.
 COMPOSITION (PALLADIUM-COPPER ALLOYS)
Palladium – 70% to 80% Copper – 9% to 15%
Gold – 1% to 2% Platinum – 1%
Some, but not all, high palladium-copper alloys contain small quantities ( 1% to 2%)
of gold and/or platinum. Trace amounts of the oxidizable elements gallium, indium and tin
are added for porcelain bonding.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Good castability 1. Produces dark, thick oxides
2. Lower cost (than gold based alloys) 2. May discolor (gray) some dental
3. Low density means more castings porcelains.
Per ounce 3. Must visually evaluate oxide color to
4. Tarnish and corrosion resistance determine if proper adherent oxide was
5. Compatible with many dental formed.
Porcelains. 4. Should not be cast in carbon crucibles
6. Some are available in one (electric casting machines)
unit ingots. 5. Prone to gaseous absorption.
6. Subject to thermal creep.

7. May not be suitable for long span

fixed partial denture prosthesis.
8. Little information on long term
clinical success.
9. Difficult to polish
10. Resoldering is a problem
BASE METAL ALLOYS
 BASE METAL ALLOYS1,3,4,7,9,10,15,16,18,20,23&34
-Nickel based
-Cobalt based
Alloys in systems contain chromium as the second largest
both
constituent. A classification of base metal casting alloys
Co-Cr
Removable
Partial denture Co-Cr-Ni

Ni-Cr

Co-Cr-Mo
Base metal Surgical
Casting alloy Implant Co-Cr-Mo

No Be. (Class-I)
Ni-Cr
Fixed
Be. Cont.(Class-
Partial denture Co-Cr (Class-III)
II)
Chromium
Forms chromium oxide- Passivation
Strengthens alloy by solution hardening
Berillium
Improves castability
Promotes formation of stable oxide layer for porcelain bonding
Grain refinement
Lowers fusion temp
Molybdenum
Corrosion resistance
Coeff of thermal exp
Ni- Cr for crowns, FPD
Co- Cr for larger castings CPD
Nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) System1,7

These metal-ceramic alloy offer such economy that they are

also used for complete crown and all metal fixed partial denture
prosthesis (Bertolotti, 1983).
The major constituents are nickel and chromium, with a
wide array of minor alloying elements.

The system contains two major groups:

-Beryllium free (class 1)
-Beryllium (class 2)

Of the two, Ni-Cr-Beryllium alloy are generally regarded as

possessing superior properties and have been more popular
(Tuccillo and Cascone,1984).
NICKEL-CHROMIUM BERYLLIUM FREE ALLOYS9,10,23

Composition:

Nickel – 62% to 77% Chromium – 11% to 22%

Boron , iron, molybdenum, Niobium or columbium and tantalum (trace elements).

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Do not contain beryllium 1. Cannot use with Nickel sensitive patients.
2. Low cost 2. Cannot be etched. (Cr doesn’t dissolve
in acid)
3. Low density means more casting 3. May not cast as well as Ni-Cr-Be alloys
per ounce 4. Produces more oxide than Ni-Cr-Be
alloys.
 NICKEL-CHROMIUM-BERYLLIUM ALLOY9,10,23

Composition:

Nickel – 62% to 82% Chromium – 11% to 20%

Beryllium – 2.0%
Numerous minor alloying elements include aluminum, carbon, gallium, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, silicon, titanium and /or vanadium are present.

Advantages
1. Low cost
2. Low density, permits more
casting per ounce.
3. High sag resistance
4. Can produce thin casting
5. Poor thermal conductor
6. Can be etched to increase
retention
Disadvantages
1. Cannot use with nickel sensitive patients
2. Beryllium exposure may be potentially
harmful to technicians and patients.
3. Proper melting and casting is a
learned skill.
4. bond failure more common in the
oxide layer.
5. High hardness (May wear opposing
teeth)
6. Difficult to solder
7. Ingots do not pool
DISADVANTAGES OF NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS:

Nickel may produce allergic reactions in some

individuals (contact dermatitis). It is also a potential
carcinogen.
Beryllium which is present in many base metal
alloys is a potentially toxic substance.21,23 Inhalation of
beryllium containing dust or fumes is the main route of
exposure. It causes a condition know as ‘berylliosis’. It
is characterized by flu-like symptoms and granulomas
of the lungs.
Adequate precautions must be taken while
working with base metal alloys. Fumes from melting
and dust from grinding beryllium-containing alloys
should be avoided. The work area should be well
ventilated.
 Comparative properties of Ni / Cr alloys and type III casting gold
alloys for small cast restorations
Property (Units) Type III gold Comments
Ni/Cr alloy
15 More difficult to produce defect free casting for
Density (g/cm3) 8 Ni/Cr alloys.
Fusion temperature As high as Normally lower Ni/Cr alloys require electrical
1350°C than 1000°C induction furnace or oxyacetylene equipment.
Casting shrinkage (%) 2 1.4 Mostly compensated for by correct choice of
investment
Tensile strength (MPa) 600 540 Both adequate for the applications
being considered.
Proportional 230 290 Both high enough to prevent distortion for
limit (MPa) applications being considered; not that values
are lower than for partial denture alloys
Modulus of 220 85 Higher modulus of Ni/Cr is an advantage for
elasticity (GPa) large restoration e.g. bridges and for porcelain
bonded restoration.
Hardness (VHN) 300 150 Ni/Cr more difficult to polish but retains polish
during service
Ductility upto 30% 20 (as cast) Relatively large values suggest that burnishing
(% elongation) 10 (hardened) is possible; however, large proportional limit
value suggests higher forces would be require.
 COBALT CHROMIUM ALLOYS4,6,15,16,22&25

Cobalt chromium alloys have been available since the 1920’s. They possess
high strength. Their excellent corrosion resistance especially at high temperatures
makes them useful for a number of applications.
These alloys are also known as ‘satellite’ because they maintained their shiny,
star-like appearance under different conditions.
They have bright lustrous, hard, strong and non-tarnishing qualities.
APPLICATIONS:
1. Denture base
2. Cast removable partial denture framework.
3. Surgical implants.
4. Car spark plugs and turbine blades.
COMPOSITION:
Cobalt - 55 to 65%
Chromium - 23 to 30%
Nickel - 0 to 20%
Molybdenum - 0 to 7%
Iron - 0 to 5%
Carbon - upto 0.4%
Tungsten,
Manganese, Silicon
and Platinum in
traces.
 PROPERTIES
The Cobalt-Chromium alloys have replaced Type IV
gold alloys because of their lower cost and adequate
mechanical properties. Chromium is added for tarnish
resistance since chromium oxide forms an adherent and
resistant surface layer.
1.Physical Properties:
Density: The density is half that of gold alloys, so they are lighter in
weight.
8 to 9 gms/cm3.
Fusion temperature: The castingtemperature of thisalloy
is considerably higher than that of gold alloys. 1250oC to 1480oC.

A.D.A. specification No. 14 divides it into two types, based on

fusion temperature (which is defined as the liquidus temperature)
Type-I (High fusing) – liquidus temperature greater than
1300oC
Type-II (Low fusing) – liquidus temperature lower than
o
2. Mechanical Properties:

Yield strength: It is higher that of gold alloys. 710Mpa

than (103,000psi).

Elongation: Their ductility is lower than that of gold alloys. Depending

on the composition, rate of cooling, and the fusion and mold
temperature employed, it ranges from 1 to 12%.
These alloys work harden very easily, so care must be taken while
adjusting the clasp arms of the partial denture.

Modulus of elasticity: They are twice as stiff as gold alloys

22.5103Mpa. Thus, casting can be made more thinner, thus
decreasing the weight of the R.P.D. Adjustment of clasp is not easy.

Hardness: These alloys are 50% harder than gold alloys 432 VHN.
Thus, cutting, grinding and finishing is difficult.
3. Tarnish and corrosion resistance: Formation of a
layer of chromium oxide on the surface of these alloys prevents
tarnish and corrosion in the oral cavity.
Solutions of hypochlorite and other compounds that are present
in some denture-cleaning agents will cause corrosion in such
base metal alloys. Even the oxygenating denture cleansers will
stain such alloys. Therefore, these solutions should not be used
for cleaning cobalt-chromium base alloys.

4.Casting Shrinkage: The casting shrinkage is much

greater than that of gold alloys (2.3%), so limited use in crown &
bridge.
The high shrinkage is due to their high fusion temperature.

5.Porosity: As in gold alloys, porosity is due to shrinkage and

release of dissolved gases which is not true in case of Co-Cr
alloys. Porosity is affected by the composition of the alloys and its
manipulations.
Comparative properties of Co / Cr alloys and type IV casting gold alloys
for partial denture
Property (Units) Co/Cr Type IV gold Comments
alloy
Density (g/cm3) 8- 15 More difficult to produce defect free
9 casting for Co/Cr alloys but denture
frameworks are lighter
Fusion temperature as high Normally lower Co/Cr alloys require electrical induction
as than 1000°C furnace or oxyacetylene equipment.
1500°C Can not use gypsum bonded
investments for Co/Cr alloys
Casting shrinkage 2.3 1.4 Mostly compensated by correct
(%) for choice of investment
Tensile strength 850 750 Both acceptable
(MPa)
Proportional 710 500 Both acceptable; can resist stresses
(MPa)
limit without deformation
Modulus of 225 100 Co/Cr more rigid for equivalent thickness;
elasticity (GPa) advantage for connectors; disadvantage
for clasps
Hardness (Vickers) 432 250 Co/Cr more difficult to polish but retains
polish during service
Ductility (% 2 15 (as cast) Co/Cr clasps may fractured
8 (hardened) if adjustments are attempted.
elongation)
Summary of base metal alloy properties
Property Ni-Cr without Ni-Cr with Be Co-Cr
Be
Strength (MPa) 255-550 480-830 415-550
Ultimate 550-900 760-1380 550-900
tensile
strength (MPa)
% elongation 5-35 3-25 1-12
Modulus of 13.8-20.7 x 104 17.2-20.7 x 104 17.2-22.5x104
elasticity
(MPa)
Vickers 175-350 300-350 300-500
hardness
Casting 1430-1570 1370-1480 1430-1590
temperature
(°C)
 TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS4,13,19,45,46&48

Titanium is called “material of choice” in dentistry. This is attributed to the oxide

formation property which forms basis for corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of
this material. The term 'titanium' is used for all types of pure and alloyed titanium.

Properties of titanium:

-Resistance to electrochemical degradation

-Begins biological response
-Relatively light weight
-Low density (4.5 g/cm3)
-Low modulus (100 GPa)
-High strength (yield strength = 170-480 MPa; ultimate
strength = 240-550 MPa)
-Passivity
-Low coefficient of thermal expansion (8.5 x 10–6/°C)
-Melting & boiling point of 1668°C & 3260°C

Uses:
Commercially pure titanium is used for dental implants, surface coatings, crowns,
partial dentures, complete dentures and orthodontic wires
Commercially Pure Titanium (CP Ti):
It is available in four grades (according to American Society for Testing and
Materials ASTM) which vary according to the oxygen (0.18-0.40 wt.%), iron (0.20-
0.50 wt%) and other impurities. It has got an alpha phase structure at room
temperature and converts to beta phase structure at 883°C which is stronger but
brittle.
 TITANIUM ALLOYS

titanium – alpha phase- hcp

beta phase- ccp- >882
Alpha stabilizers- Al, C,N, Ga
Beta stabilizers- Mo, Cb,Cr,Ni, Cu, Pd
Ti-6Al-4V alpha- beta
 CAST TITANIUM:
The two most important factors in casting titanium based
materials are its high melting point (1668°C) and chemical
reactivity.
special melting procedures, cooling cycles, mold materials,
and casting equipments are required to prevent metal
contamination, because it readily reacts with hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen at temperatures greater than 600°C.
So casting is done in a vacuum or inert gas atmosphere.
The investment materials such as phosphate bonded silica
and phosphate investment material with added trace metal
are used. It has been shown that magnesium based
investment cause internal porosity in casting.
Argon arc with tungsten electrode
Argon / He atmosphere
Crucible – Cu, Mg,or Carbon
Because of its low density, it is difficult to cast in centrifugal
casting machine. So advanced casting machine combining
centrifugal, vacuum, pressure and gravity casting with electric
arc melting technology have been developed.

Difficulties in casting Titanium :

-High melting point

-High reactivity
-Low casting efficiency
-Inadequate expansion of investment
-Casting porosity
-Difficulty in finishing
-Difficulty in welding
-Requires expensive equipments
Alternative technologies
1. Sintering / diffusion of metal foil
2. CAD/CAM processing of metal blocks
3. Copy milling
4. Electroformed metal copings
5. 3 D printing
Biological hazards of Base metal

Ni allergy
Berilliosis
Joining of Alloys
Soldering - <450
Brazing >450
Welding
Soldering
Metal substrate
Solder / filler metal
Flux- prevent/ reduce / remove oxide layer
Heat source
Solder/ filler

Low flow temp

Wetting
Fluidity
FLOW TEMP IS HIGHER THAN LIQUIDUS TEMP OF THE
SOLDER AND LESS THAN SOLIDUS TEMP OF SUBSTRATES
BY 55.6
HEAT SOURCES
GAS TORCH
FURNACE
Welding
Substrates melt and fuse
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Moffa JP, Guckes AD, Okawa MT and Lilly GE (1973)23 did an evaluation of
nonprecious alloys for use with porcelain veneers and provided quantitative
information about the levels of beryllium produced during the finishing and polishing
of cast base metal dental alloys with there harmful effects.

Shillingburg HT, Hobo S and Fisher DW (1977)39 Studied Preparation design and
margin distortion in porcelain-fused-to-metal restorations.
The results of this study suggested that thermal incompatibility stresses were
likely to cause margin distortion in metal ceramic crowns. However, subsequent
studies support other potential mechanisms, including the effect of excessive sand
blasting time and/or pressure.

Baran GR (1983)7 did an extensive study on metallurgy of sixteen

commercially available Ni-Cr alloys for fixed prosthodontics and compared their
alloy compositions, mechanical properties (yield strength, tensile strength,
%elongation and hardness number), microstructures and clinically relevant
considerations for the use of these alloys.
 Carr A.B., Cai Z., Brantley W.A.(1993)11 did a study on new high
palladium casting alloys (generation 1&2). For the five high-palladium
alloys studied, the following conclusions were drawn:
1.An increase in the investment burn out temperature from 1400°F to
1500 °F had little effect on microstructure and hardness, but grain or
dendritic size was found to vary substantially.
2.Hot tears were more prevalent in the alloys when the higher burnout
temperature was used.
3.Heat treatment simulating porcelain firing cycles for these alloys
generally caused decrease in hardness.

Reisbick NH and Brantley WA (1995)36 conducted a study on

mechanical properties and microstructural variations for recasting low
gold alloys. They concluded that significant decrease in yield strength
and percentage elongation were observed for recasting these alloys but
not in tensile strength when the Type III gold alloys were recasted upto 3
times. Scanning electron microscope examination revealed that the
number of casting defects (principally porosity) increased the
with
number of times the alloy was remelted.
Berzins DW, Sarkar NK et al (2000)8 did an in-vitro electrochemical
evaluation of high palladium alloys in relation to palladium allergy.
The high incidence of allergic reaction was associated with Pd-Cu
based alloys. The “Pd-skin” of these alloys when in contact with saliva
release some Pd++ ions (an allergen) which can trigger the cascade
of biological reaction involved in allergy and hypersensitivity. It is a
time dependent process.
In Pd alloys containing Ag, formation of Ag-Cl film on the alloy surface is
supposed to prevent Pd in coming in contact with oral fluids, having a
masking effect and thus avoiding allergy.

Tufekci E, Mitchell JC et al (2002)43 did a study on spectroscopy

measurements of elemental release from high palladium dental casting
alloys into a corrosion testing medium. A highly sensitive analytical
technique shows that the release of individual elements over a one
month period, suggesting that there may be low risk of biological
reaction with the Pd-Ga alloys than with the Pd-Cu-Ga alloys tested.
 Ahmad SAH, Omar MB, Homa D. (2003)1 did an investigation of the
cytotoxic effects of commercially available dental casting alloys
concluded the following:
and
1.The high noble alloy Bioherador N was significantly less cytotoxic than all
the base metal alloys tested in this study (Ni-Cr, Co-Cr, Cu-based)
2.The Ni-Cr alloy CB Soft was significantly more cytotoxic than all the Ni-Cr
and Co-Cr alloys tested. This could be related to the content of Cu, low
content of Cr and absence of Mo in its composition.
3.Cu based alloys Thermobond showed a more severe cytotoxic reaction than
all the other alloys.
O’Brien WJ (2004)29 Biomaterial Properties Database, University of Michigan:
http://www.lib.umich.edu/dentlib/Dental tables/.
This database provides an electronic reference to the following properties of
dental materials; strength between restorative materials and tooth structures,
BHN, coefficient of thermal friction, coefficient of thermal expansion (linear),
colours of dental shade guide, contact angles, creep, density, dynamic
modulus, elastic modulus, heat of fusion, KHN, melting temperatures and
ranges, %elongation, permanent deformities, proportional limit, shear
strength, tear energy, tear strength, ultimate compressive strength, VHN and
yield strength.
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