Research

Methods
MGT 817 - Fall 2019
MS 2K19

Dr Muhammad Naseer
Akhtar
Head of Research
NUST Business School
Learning Objectives

• Theory building
• The nature of the relationship between theory
and research
• How does a researcher selects a research
paradigm and corresponding methodology?
• Research approaches to theory development
• Research paradigm, and Research strategy
• Selection of Research paradigm and research
strategy
• Factors influencing choice of methodology
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Theory and Song
A fact without a theory
Is like a ship without a sail,
Is like a boat without a rudder,
Is like a kite without a tail.
A fact without a figure is a
tragic final act,
But one thing worse in this
universe
Is a theory without a fact.
Theories
Theories are nets cast to catch what we call “the
world”: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. We
endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer.
Karl R. Popper
Theory
• A coherent set of general propositions used as
principles of explanation of the apparent relationships
of certain observed phenomena.
Theory and Research
• Business research does not exist in isolation
• Link between social reality and research
• Link between business research methods and
practice connect with wider social relations

• Understanding the link between theory and

research
• There are two key issues here:
• What form of theory is being referred to?
• Is data collected to test theories or build
them?
Two Purposes Of Theory
• What is the purpose of Science?
1- Expansion of knowledge, and
2- The search for truth

• What is the purpose of Theory?

1- Prediction
2- Understanding
Deductive and Inductive Theory

• Deductivism:
– Theory  data
– Explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or
rejected
– Quantitative research

• Inductivism:
– Data  theory
– Generalizable inferences from observations
– Qualitative research/grounded theory
The process of deduction
 Types of reasoning
There are two types of reasoning in organizational research:

1.Theory-testing research: this involves developing hypotheses

from a priori theoretical considerations, enabling them to be
confirmed or disconfirmed through statistical inference.

2.Inductive case research: this involves theory being

developed in a ‘data-driven manner’ using qualitative data,
often taking a grounded theory approach.
Deductive Reasoning
• The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a
known premise or something known to be true.
• We know that all managers are human beings.
• If we also know that Mr. Ali is a manager,
• then we can deduce that Mr. Ali is a human being.
Inductive Reasoning

• The logical process of establishing a general proposition

on the basis of observation of particular facts.
• All managers that have ever been seen are human
beings;
• therefore all managers are human beings.
Epistemology, Ontology and
Methodology
• Epistemology: To do with our beliefs about how one might discover
knowledge about the world. How we know about reality?

• Ontology: To do with our assumptions about how the world is made up

and the nature of things. What is reality?

• Methodology: To do with the tools and techniques of research. How to

know the reality? What are the systematic ways and tools to know reality?

• Relationship of the three: Epistemological and ontological positions should

have some bearing on the methods that you select for your research

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What is the role of a paradigm?

A paradigm is a cluster of beliefs and dictates that influences:

• What should be studied;
• How research should be conducted;
• How results should be interpreted.

What is research philosophy?

Refers to system of beliefs and assumptions about development

of knowledge
Positivism and Anti-positivism
Positivism Anti-positivism
objectivity, measurability, non-positivism essentially
predictability, emphasizes understanding
controllability and and interpretation of
constructs laws and rules of phenomena and making
human behavior, meaning out of this
process.
Research strategy:
quantitative research

Quantitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes

quantification in the collection and analysis of data and that:
• entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory
and research, in which the emphasis is on the testing of theories;
• has incorporated the practices and norms of the natural scientific
model and Positivism; and
• takes a view of social reality as an external, objective reality
Features of quantitative research

• A measurement of social variables

• Common research designs: surveys and
experiments
• Numerical and statistical data
• Deductive theory testing
• Positivist epistemology
• Objectivist view of reality as external to social
actors
Research strategy:
qualitative research
Qualitative research is a research strategy that emphasises
words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis
of data and that:

• predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to the

relationship between theory and research, in which the
emphasis is placed on the generation of theories;
• has rejected the practices and norms of the natural
scientific model and of positivism in particular in
preference for an emphasis on the ways in which
individuals interpret their social world; and
• takes a view of social reality as a constantly shifting
Features of qualitative research

• Understanding the subjective meanings held

by actors (interpretivist epistemology)
• Common methods: interviews, ethnography
• Data are words, texts, and stories
• Inductive approach: theory emerges from
data
 Qualitative vs Quantitative: Basic
differences
Qualitative Quantitative
Purpo To describe a situation, To measure magnitude.
se gain insight to particularHow widespread is a
practice practice
Forma No pre-determined Pre-determined response
t response categories categories, standard
measures (scales and
tests)
Data In-depth explanatory Wide breadth of data
data from a small sample from large statistically
representative sample
Qualitative vs Quantitative: Basic
differences
Qualitative Quantitative
Analysis Draws out patterns Tests hypotheses, uses
from concepts and data to support
insights conclusion

Result Illustrative Numerical aggregation

explanation & in summaries
individual responses
in the form of
narrative
Sampling Non-probability Probability
 Qualitative vs Quantitative: Basic
differences
Qualitative Quantitative
Researc Broader, contextual, Fixed/Focused
h flexible
questio
n

Expecte Usually not predefined. Identified in advance

d
outcom
e

Results Produce results that give Produce results that

The question arises: how does a researcher select a
research paradigm and corresponding
methodology?
The following questions may be raised by the researcher:
• What is the nature or essence of the social phenomena
being investigated?
• Is social phenomenon objective in nature or created by the
human mind?
• What are the bases of knowledge corresponding to the
social reality, and how knowledge can be acquired and
disseminated?
• What is the relationship of an individual with her
environment? Is she conditioned by the environment or is
the environment created by her?
Methods
Map
Selection of Research Paradigm and
research
Research paradigm:
Positivism
Quantitative
Research Approach:
Survey, longitudinal, cross-sectional, experiments
Research Methods:

Examples:
Attitude of MS HRM students towards NBS registration
system, Relationship between student’s financial
position and their academic performance, Effect of
emotional intelligence on learning effectiveness.

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Selection of Research Paradigm
and research methods (2)
Research paradigm:
Anti-positivism
Qualitative
Research Approach:
Biographical, phenomenological, ethnological, case-
Research methods:
study

Examples:
A study of autobiography of Allama Iqbal, Quaid-e-Azam,
A study of effective management among female
managers,
A case-study of UTM distance learning programme.
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Mixed methods research

• It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative

strategies within a research project.

• Holmberg et al’s (2008) study of leadership shows

how combining quantitative and qualitative research
provided a more rounded and complete picture.
Factors influencing researchers’
choice of methods
• Organizational
• Historical
• Political
• Ethical
• Evidential
• Personal
Practical considerations

• May influence or determine choices on:

• research strategy
• design
• method
• resources and costs
• May be influenced or determined by:
• nature of the topic
• people being investigated
• political acceptability
Concept (or Construct)
• A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that has been given a name
• Building blocks that abstract reality
• “leadership,” “productivity,” and “morale”
• “gross national product,” “asset,” and “inflation”
A Ladder Of Abstraction
For Concepts

Increasingly more abstract

Scientific Business Researchers
Operate at Two Levels
• Abstract level
• concepts
• propositions
• Empirical level
• variables
• hypotheses
Definitions
• Abstract level -In theory development, the level of
knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an
idea or a quality apart from an object.
• Empirical level -Level of knowledge reflecting that
which is verifiable by experience or observation.
Theory Building A Process Of
Increasing Abstraction

Theories

Increasingly more abstract

Propositions

Concepts

Observation of objects
and events (reality )
Concepts are Abstractions of
Reality
Abstract
CONCEPTS
Level

Empirical OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS

Level AND EVENTS (REALITY)
• A hypothesis is a statement that is empirically
testable. It is an empirical statement concerned with
the relationship among variables.
• A variable is anything that may assume different
numerical values.
The Scientific Method:
An Overview

Assess Formulate Statement

Design
relevant concepts & of
research
existing Propositions Hypotheses
knowledge

Acquire Analyze & Provide

empirical evaluate explanation-
data data state new
problem