HYDROLOGIC ABSTRACTIONS

Problems in hydrologic design requires the modeling of

precipitation-runoff relationship. 

- Runoff = Total Precipitation – “ Losses “ 

- Types of Hydrologic Abstractions (Losses):

(A)  Interception;
(B) Depression Storage;
(C)  Evaporation;
(D)  Transpiration;
(E) Evapotranspiration;
(F) Infiltration.
 Hydrologic Theory
• One of the principal objectives in hydrology is
to transform rainfall that has fallen over a
watershed area into flows to be expected in
the receiving stream.
• Losses must be considered such as infiltration
or evaporation (long-term)
• Watershed characteristics are important
 Atmosphere

Evaporation Evaporation
Precipitation

Water on Surface Overland Flow

Channel
Reservoir
Flow
Evapotranspiration

Ground Water Ground

Water
Flow
Ocean

The Hydrologic Cycle

 Watershed Response
Tributary

 Precipitation over the

area
 Portion Infiltrates the Reservoir
soil
Natura
 Portion Evaporates or ET l
strea
back m Urban

 Remainder - Overland
Flow Concrete
channel

 Overland flow - Channel

flow
Q
 Final Hydrograph at
Outlet T
 Manning’s Equation - Compute Peak Flow

A A A

P = Wetted Perimeter Pipe P = Circum. Natural Channel

Q = VA
where
Q = Flowrate, m3/s
n = Manning’s Roughness Coefficient (ranges from 0.015 - 0.15)
S = Slope of channel in longitudinal direction (m/m)
R = A/P, the hydraulic radius (m), where
A = Cross-sectional Area of Flow (area of trapezoid or flow area)
P = Wetted Perimeter (perimeter in contact with water)
 Hillslope Hydrology
Runoff Processes:
Horton overland flow
Subsurface stormflow,
Return flow
Water Flow

Groundwater flow
Factors Affecting
Water Movement
in Soils
 Formation process of surface runoff

• Surface runoff
– overland flow (sheet flow)
– shallow concentrated flow
– open channel flow
Runoff hydrograph
• Total streamflow during a precipitation event
includes the baseflow existing in the basin prior
to the storm and the runoff due to the given
storm precipitation. Total streamflow
hydrographs are usually conceptualized as being
composed of:
– Direct Runoff, which is composed of contributions
from surface runoff and quick interflow. Unit
hydrograph analysis refers only to direct runoff.
– Baseflow, which is composed of contributions from
delayed interflow and groundwater runoff.
• Surface runoff includes all overland flow as well as
all precipitation falling directly onto stream
channels. Surface runoff is the main contributor to
the peak discharge.
• Interflow is the portion of the streamflow
contributed by infiltrated water that moves laterally
in the subsurface until it reaches a channel.
Interflow is a slower process than surface runoff.
Components of interflow are
– quick interflow, which contributes to direct runoff, and
– delayed interflow, which contributes to baseflow.
• Groundwater runoff is the flow component
contributed to the channel by groundwater.
This process is extremely slow as compared to
surface runoff.
• Basins with a lot of storage have a large
recessional limb.
• Recession occurs exponentially for baseflow
 Methods of baseflow separation
• Fixed base method (A-B-D-E)
• Variable slope method (A-B-C-E)
• Straight line method (A-E)
• Curves AB and EF are considered as ground
water recession curves.
• The ground water recession can be described
by the following equation
• The recession limb of a hydrograph represents
withdraw of water from surface storage,
subsurface (inter) flow and groundwater flow.
Suppose that the recession curve can be
expressed by 

Then the recession constant K is then taken as the

product of recession constants for three individual
components, i.e.,

where Ks, Ki and Kg are recession constants

associated with surface storage, interflow and
groundwater flow, respectively.
• The main factors affecting hydrograph shape are:
– Drainage characteristics: basin area, basin shape, basin
slope, soil type and land use, drainage density, and
drainage network topology. Most changes in land use
tend to increase the amount of runoff for a given
storm.
– Rainfall characteristics: rainfall intensity, duration, and
their spatial and temporal distribution; and storm
motion, as storms moving in the general downstream
direction tend to produce larger peak flows than storms
moving upstream.
Also need to consider the storm
duration and time of concentration.
• Hydrographs are also described in terms of the
following time characteristics:
– Time to Peak, tp: Time from the beginning of the rising
limb to the occurrence of the peak discharge.
• The time to peak is largely determined by drainage
characteristics such as drainage density, slope, channel
roughness, and soil infiltration characteristics. Rainfall
distribution in space also affects the time to peak.
– Time of Concentration, tc: Time required for water to
travel from the most hydraulically remote point in the
basin to the basin outlet. For rainfall events of very
long duration, the time of concentration is associated
with the time required for the system to achieve the
maximum or equilibrium discharge.
• The drainage characteristics of length and slope, together
with the hydraulic characteristics of the flow paths,
determine the time of concentration.
– Lag Time, tl: Time between the center of mass of the
effective rainfall hyetograph and the center of mass of
the direct runoff hydrograph.
• The basin lag is an important concept in linear modeling of
basin response. The lag time is a parameter that appears
often in theoretical and conceptual models of basin behavior.
However, it is sometimes difficult to measure in real world
situations. Many empirical equations have been proposed in
the literature. The simplest of these equations computes the
basin lag as a power function of the basin area.
– Time Base, tb: Duration of the direct runoff hydrograph.
 Runoff Generation

As we discuss mechanisms, remember…

– Many processes occur simultaneously

– Shifts can occur between processes in
space and time
– Antecedent wetness conditions are
important
– Watershed characteristic play a central role
What is ‘River Network’?

Also known as
‘Drainage Network’
The order of streams
Zero order (watersheds)?

Has only Overland

Flow
Horton’s Law of Streams
(modified by Strahler)

Law of Stream Lengths

Law of Stream Areas
Bifurcation Ratio
 Stream ordering
• Quantitative way of studying
streams. Developed by Horton and
then modified by Strahler.
• Each headwater stream is
designated as first order stream
• When two first order stream
combine, they produce second
order stream
• Only when two streams of the
same order combine, the stream
order increases by one
• When a lower order stream
combines with a higher order
stream, the higher order is
retained in the combined stream
Hydrology deals with the distribution and movement of water.
 Watershed
An area contributing runoff and sediment.
 Factors That Affect Flow
 Precipitation  Ease of runoff
 Antecedent movement (time of
moisture concentration)
 Snow melt  Watershed size
 Frozen ground (delineation)
 Spatial extent of
 Soils
storm  Land use
Human activity can
alter these.
 Excess rainfall
• Rainfall that is neither retained on the land surface
nor infiltrated into the soil
• Graph of excess rainfall versus time is called excess
rainfall hyetograph
• Direct runoff = observed streamflow - baseflow
• Excess rainfall = observed rainfall - abstractions
• Abstractions/losses – difference between total
rainfall hyetograph and excess rainfall hyetograph
 f-index
• f-index: Constant rate of abstraction yielding
excess rainfall hyetograph with depth equal to
depth of direct runoff
• Used to compute excess rainfall hyetograph
when observed rainfall and streamflow data
are available
 f-index method
• Goal: pick Dt, and adjust
value of M to satisfy the
equation
• Steps
1. Estimate baseflow
2. DRH = streamflow
hydrograph – baseflow
3. Compute rd, rd =
Vd/watershed area
4. Adjust M until you get a
satisfactory value of f
5. ERH = Rm - fDt
M
rd    Rm  t 
m 1
rd  depth of direct runoff
Rm  observed rainfall
  Phi index
M  # intervalsof rainfall
contributing to driect runoff
t  time interval
Example

The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period

of a 3-hour storm are : 1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, 1.0
cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is
estimated to be 3.6 cm. Estimate the φ-index.

Solution:
Σ(i – φ)t = Pe, and thus it follows

Construct the hyetograph as shown in the figure. 

 

   
Estimate the Phi-Index for storm 2
Examples
 SCS method
• Soil conservation service (SCS) method is an
experimentally derived method to determine rainfall
excess using information about soils, vegetative cover,
hydrologic condition and antecedent moisture
conditions
• The method is based on the simple relationship that
Pe = P - Fa – Ia
P  Pe  I a  Fa

Precipitation
Pe is runoff volume, P is
precipitation volume, Fa Pe
is continuing
abstraction, and Ia is the
Ia Fa
sum of initial losses
(depression storage, Time
tp
interception, ET)
 Abstractions – SCS Method
• In general
Pe  P

Precipitation
P  Pe  I a  Fa

• After runoff begins Pe

Fa  S
• Potential runoff Ia Fa

P  Ia
tp Time
• SCS Assumption
Fa Pe P  Total Rainfall

S P  Ia
Pe  Rainfall Excess
• Combining SCS assumption
I a  InitialAbstraction
with P=Pe+Ia+Fa
Fa  ContinuingAbstraction
 P  Ia  2 S  PotentialMaximumStorage
Pe 
P  Ia  S
 SCS Method (Cont.)
• Surface
• Experiments showed – Impervious: CN = 100
– Natural: CN < 100

I a  S  0.2 S
• So 12

11
100
90
10 80
 P  0.2S  2 9 70
Pe 

Cumulative Direct Runoff, Pe, in

P  0.8S 8 60
7 40
1000
S  10 6 20
CN 5
10
(American Units;0  CN  100) 4
3
25400
S  254 2
CN 1
(SI Units; 30  CN  100)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Cumulative Rainfall, P, in
 SCS Method (Cont.)
• S and CN depend on antecedent rainfall
conditions
• Normal conditions, AMC(II)
4.2CN ( II )
• Dry conditions, AMC(I) CN ( I ) 
10  0.058CN ( II )

23CN ( II )
• Wet conditions, AMC(III) CN ( III ) 
10  0.13CN ( II )
 SCS Method (Cont.)
• SCS Curve Numbers depend on soil conditions
Group Minimum Infiltration Soil type
Rate (in/hr)
A 0.3 – 0.45 High infiltration rates. Deep, well
drained sands and gravels
B 0.15 – 0.30 Moderate infiltration rates. Moderately
deep, moderately well drained soils
with moderately coarse textures (silt,
silt loam)
C 0.05 – 0.15 Slow infiltration rates. Soils with layers,
or soils with moderately fine textures
(clay loams)
D 0.00 – 0.05 Very slow infiltration rates. Clayey
soils, high water table, or shallow
impervious layer
 Curve Number – Normal AMC (II)
Hydrologic Soil Group
Land Use Description A B C D
Commercial, row houses and townhouses 80 85 90 95
Fallow, poor condition 77 86 91 94
Cultivated with conventional tillage 72 81 88 91
Cultivated with conservation tiilage 62 71 78 81
Lawns, poor condition 58 74 82 86
Lawns, good condition 39 61 74 80
Pasture or range, poor condition 68 79 86 89
Pasture or range, good condition 39 61 74 80
Meadow 30 58 71 78
Pavement and roofs 100 100 100 100
Woods or forest thin stand, poor cover 45 66 77 83
Woods or forest, good cover 25 55 70 77
Farmsteads 59 74 82 86
Residential 1/4 acre lot, poor condition 73 83 88 91
Residential 1/4 acre lot, good condition 61 75 83 87
Residential 1/2 acre lot, poor condition 67 80 86 89
Residential 1/2 acre lot, good condition 53 70 80 85
Residential 2 acre lot, poor condition 63 77 84 87
Residential 2 acre lot, good condition 47 66 77 81
Roads 74 84 90 92
 Example - SCS Method - 1
• Rainfall: 5 in.
• Area: 1000-ac
• Soils:
– Class B: 50%
– Class C: 50%
• Antecedent moisture: AMC(II)
• Land use
– Residential
• 40% with 30% impervious cover
• 12% with 65% impervious cover
– Paved roads: 18% with curbs and storm sewers
– Open land: 16%
• 50% fair grass cover
• 50% good grass cover
– Parking lots, etc.: 14%
 Example (SCS Method – 1, Cont.)
Hydrologic Soil Group
B C
Land use % CN Product % CN Product
Residential (30% imp 20 72 14.40 20 81 16.20
cover)
Residential (65% imp 6 85 5.10 6 90 5.40
cover)
Roads 9 98 8.82 9 98 8.82
Open land: good cover 4 61 2.44 4 74 2.96
Open land: Fair cover 4 69 2.76 4 79 3.16
Parking lots, etc 7 98 6.86 7 98 6.86
Total 50 40.38 50 43.40

CN  40.38  43.40  83.8

CN values come from
Table 5.5.2
Example (SCS Method – 1 Cont.)
1000
CN  83.8 S  10
CN
• Average AMC 1000
S  10  1.93 in
83.8
 P  0.2S  2  5  0.2 *1.93 2
Pe    3.25 in
P  0.8S 5  0.8 *1.93

• Wet AMC 23CN ( II ) 23 * 83.8

CN ( III )    92.3
10  0.13CN ( II ) 10  0.13 * 83.8

1000
S  10  0.83 in
92.3
 P  0.2S  2  5  0.2 * 0.83 2
Pe    4.13 in
P  0.8S 5  0.8 * 0.83
 Time of Concentration
• Different areas of a watershed
contribute to runoff at different
times after precipitation begins
• Time of concentration
– Time at which all parts of
the watershed begin
contributing to the runoff
from the basin
– Time of flow from the
farthest point in the
watershed Isochrones: boundaries of
contributing areas with
equal time of flow to the
watershed outlet
 Definition
• Time required for runoff to travel from the
hydraulically most distant point on a
watershed to another point of interest within
the watershed

51
 Factors

• Surface roughness
• Channel shape and flow patterns
• Slope

• Urbanization generally increases the runoff

velocities and therefore decreases the time of
concentration

52
 Importance

• Rational method
– Calculate time of concentration, tc
– Set duration = tc
– Use IDF curve to find rainfall intensity

• TR-55 Method
– Calculate time of concentration, tc
– Look up unit peak discharge on the appropriate Exhibit 4-#

53
 Calculation of time of concentration

• Travel time, Tt : the time it takes for water to

travel from one location to another in a
watershed.
• Time of concentration, Tc : the time at which
all of the watershed begins to contribute
direct runoff at the outlet.
 Examples

• Urban
– Sheet flow from back end of a residential lot
– Open channel flow once water drops over the curb
and into a gutter
• Rural
– Sheet flow in upper part of watershed
– Shallow concentrated flow as water forms rivulets
– Open channel flow (ditch/creek)

56
The altered flow regime affects:
 habitat (water velocity, temperature, sediment,
other pollutants)
The altered flow regime affects:
 habitat (water velocity, temperature, sediment,
other pollutants)
 flooding (frequency and elevation)
The altered flow regime affects:
 habitat (water velocity, temperature, sediment,
other pollutants)
 flooding (frequency and elevation)

 channel morphology