Transport of gases

S6 Biology, unit 4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xEHGIRpGyh4&t=61s
Haemoglobin and Oxygen
transport
• Hb is a protein with quaternary
structure. A Hb molecule is made up
of 4 polypeptide chains, each of
which has a haem group at its centre.
• Each haem group contains an Fe2+ ion
which is able to combine reversibly
with O2, forming HbO2. 
• Each iron ion can combine with 2
oxygen atoms, so one Hb molecule
can combine with 8 oxygen atoms. 
Structure of haemoglobin
 Hb + 4O2 → HbO8
O2 concentration can be measured
as partial pressure (pO2), in
kilopascals (kPa).
Hb combines with more O2 at
high pO2 than it does at low (pO2).
At high pO2, all the Hb will be
combined with O2, and we say that
it is 100% saturated with O2. 
Dissociation curve 
A graph showing the relationship
between pO2 and the % saturation of
Hb with O2.
Oxygen dissociation curve
• Dissociation curves show how efficient Hb is
at absorbing O2 in the lungs and delivering
O2 to tissue.
• In the lungs, pO2 = 12 kPa. You can see from
the graph that the Hb will be about 98%
saturated.
• In a respiring muscle, pO2= 2kPa --> Hb will
be about 23% saturated.
• --> When Hb from the lungs arrives at a
respiring muscle it gives up more than 70% of
the O2 it is carrying.
Myoglobin and Hemoglobin
The effect of pH - The Bohr effect 

Key definition
The Bohr effect (Bohr shift) refers to
a change in the shape of the
oxyhaemoglobin curve when carbon
dioxide is present- this causes the
oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen
more readily
• The amount of O2 carried and released by
Hb depends not only on the pO2 but also
on pH.
• An acidic environment causes HbO2 to
dissociate (unload) to release the O2 to
the tissues. Just a small decrease in the
pH results in a large decrease in the
percentage saturation of the blood with
O2.
• Acidity depends on the concentration of
hydrogen ions.
The presence of CO2  ↑concentration of
H+ ions
--> H+ displaces O2 from the HbO2, thus
increasing the O2 available to the respiring
tissues.
H+ + HbO2 → HHb + O2 
HHb is called haemoglobinic acid. 
This means that the Hb mops up free H+.
That way the Hb helps to maintain the
almost neutral pH of the blood. Hb acts as a
buffer.
In areas of high CO2 concentration,
Hb is less saturated with O2 than it
would be if there was no CO2 
present. This release of O2 when
the pH is low (even if the pO2 is
relatively high) is called the Bohr
effect.
It enables Hb to unload more of its
O2 in tissues where respiration
The Bohr effect causing a shift to the right 
in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve.
How is CO2 transported?
CO2 is released from respiring tissues.
It must be removed from these tissues
and transported to the lungs. CO2 in the
blood is transported in 3 ways:
About 5% is dissolved directly in the
plasma
About 10% is combined directly with
haemoglobin to form a compound
called carbaminohaemoglobin
About 85% is transported in the form
of hydrogencarbonate ions (HCO3-).
CO2 transport
About 85% of the CO2 produced by respiration
diffuses into the red blood cells and
forms H2CO3 (carbonic acid) under the control
of carbonic anhydrase - enzyme found in red
blood cells.
The HCO3− diffuses out of the red
blood cell into the plasma. This
leaves a shortage of negatively
charged ions inside the red blood
cells. (To compensate for this,
chloride ions move from the plasma
into the red blood cells. This
restoration of the electrical charge
inside the red blood cells is called
the chloride shift.)
About 5% of the CO2 produced
simply dissolves in the blood
plasma.
Some CO2 diffuses into the red
blood cells but instead of
forming H2CO3, attaches directly
onto the Hb molecules to
form carbaminohaemoglobin.
Since the CO2 doesn't bind to the
haem groups the Hb is still able to
CO2 transport
Blood clotting
Blood clotting also known as blood coagulation is
the process by which blood becomes thick and
stops flowing, forming a solid cover over any
place where the skin has been cut or broken.
Blood that has been converted from a liquid to a
solid state is called blood clot. A blood clot called
thrombus is stationary within a vessel or the
heart. If a blood clot moves from that location
through the bloodstream, it is referred to as an
embolus.
Blood clotting is a series of different processes:
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vsX_v-ZMQm
Step 1: The blood coagulation process
begins when the endothelium of a vessel
is damaged, exposing the connective in
the vessel wall to blood. Platelets adhere
to collagen fibres in the connective
tissue and release a substance that
makes nearby platelets sticky.
Step 2: The thrombocytes form a plug
that provides emergency protection
against blood loss.
Step 3: This seal is reinforced by a
clot of fibrin when vessel damage is
severe. Fibrin is formed via a
multistep process where clotting
factors released from the clumped
platelets or damaged cells mix with
clotting factors in the plasma,
forming an activation that converts
a plasma protein called
prothrombin to its active form, called
thrombin. This is facilitated by calcium ions
and vitamin K. Thrombin itself is an enzyme
that catalyses the final step of the clotting
process. This final step is the conversion of
fibrinogen to fibrin. The threads of fibrin
become interwoven into a patch. And the
blood clot is formed. These threads trap red
blood cells and other blood components,
preventing the continuous bleeding.
Common cardiovascular
diseases
Stroke
Stroke is a cardiovascular disease due to the lack of oxygen to
the brain which may lead to
reversible or irreversible paralysis. The damage to a group of
nerve cells in the brain is often due
to interrupted blood flow, caused by a blood clot or blood
vessel bursting. Since atherosclerosis is a body wide process,
similar events can also occur in the arteries to other parts of
the body, including the brain. A stroke is a loss of brain
function due to a stoppage of the blood supply to the brain. It
can be caused by a stationary blood clot known as thrombus,
a free-floating clot moving blood clot or embolus that gets
caught in a blood vessel, or by bleeding (haemorrhage).
Hypertension or high blood pressure promotes atherosclerosis
and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke.
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a cardiovascular disease
characterized by the progressive narrowing and
hardening of the arteries over time. Atherosclerosis
normally begins in later childhood, and is usually found
in most major arteries. It does not usually have any
early symptoms. Causes of atherosclerosis include a
high-fat diet, high cholesterol, smoking, obesity, and
diabetes. Atherosclerosis becomes a threat to health
when the plaque build-up interferes with the blood
circulation in the heart known as coronary circulation or
the brain known as cerebral circulation. A blockage in
the coronary circulation, can lead to a heart attack, and
blockage of the cerebral circulation can lead to a stroke.
Coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a disease in
which a waxy substance called plaque builds up
inside the coronary arteries. Cardiac muscle cells
are fed by the coronary arteries. Blocked flow in
a coronary artery can result in oxygen starvation
and death of heart muscle. Most individuals with
coronary heart disease have no symptoms for
many years until the first sign, often a heart
attack, happens.
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Questions
Carriage of oxygen
1. State where the red blood cells ‘pick up’
oxygen and where they are likely to
release it again
2. What part of the haemoglobin molecule
binds to oxygen?
3. Describe and explain the shape of the
adult oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve.
4. Explain why fetal haemoglobin must
have a higher affinity for oxygen than
adult haemoglobin
Carriage of CO2

1. List the ways CO2 can be transported in

the blood
2. Describe how CO2 is converted to
hydrogencarbonate ions
3. Explain the need for the chloride shift
4. Explain how the presence of CO2 can
reduce the affinity of haemoglobin for
oxygen

Reference: OCR Biology AS by Frank

Sochacki and Pete kennedy pages 64- 67
Carriage oxygen responses
1. RBCs pick up oxygen in the lungs and release it in respiring
tissues
2. The iron in the haem group binds to the oxygen
3. The oxygen dissociation curve is an S-shape or sigmoid
shape. This is because more oxygen will attach as the pO2 in
the air to which haemoglobin is exposed increases. At low
pO2 it is hard for oxygen molecules to attach. As the pO2
rises, and some oxygen molecules attach to the
haemoglobin, this makes it easier for more oxygen
molecules to attach. This is due to a comformational change
in the shape of the haemoglobin. However, as the
haemoglobin becomes saturated it becomes more difficult
for the oxygen to attach to the haemoglobin.
4. A fetus is not exposed to the outside air. It gains oxygen from
the mother’s blood. It must be able to pick up oxygen at a pO2
that is low enough to make the maternal haemoglobin release
oxygen.
Carriage of Co2 responses
1. Dissolved as CO2 in plasma, combined with Hb as
carbaminohaemoglobin and as HCO3- ions in the plasma.
2. CO2 enters the RBC and is combined with H2O to form
carbonic acid. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase ensures that
this occurs. The carbonic acid dissociates to hydrogen ions
and HCO3- ions
3. The HCO3- ions are negatively charged. They diffuse out of
the RBC, leaving it with a positive charge. Chloride ions are
moved into the RBC to neutralise this charge.
4. Actively respiring tissue releases more CO2. This forms more
carbonic acid so more hydrogen ions are formed. More
hydrogen ions will cause more oxygen to be released from
the Hb.
Risk factors associated with
cardiovascular diseases
There are several risk factors for heart disease. Some of those
factors are controllable and others are uncontrolled.
Uncontrollable factors include the gender (males are at greater
risk), age (old people have higher risk), and family history in
relation to heart diseases as well post-menopausal stages for
females. Making some changes in lifestyle can reduce chance of
having heart disease. Controllable risk factors include smoking,
high blood pressure, physical inactivity, obesity, diabetes, stress
and anger