ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Clarence L. Nuval, RMT, MD

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hormones
• A molecule released in one part of the body but regulates the
activity of cells in other parts of the body

Exocrine glands
• Secrete products into ducts
• E.g. sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands

Endocrine glands
• Secrete products directly into the interstitial fluid
• E.g. pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Organs that contain hormone-
secreting cells:
• Hypothalamus
• Liver
• Thymus • Small intestine
• Pancreas • Skin
• Ovaries
• Heart
• Testes
• Adipose tissue
• Kidneys
• Placenta
• Stomach
FUNCTION OF HORMONES
• Regulate chemical composition and volume of extracellular fluid
• Regulate metabolism and energy balance
• Regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers
• Regulate glandular secretion and other immune system activities
• Control growth and development
• Regulate operation of reproductive systems
• Help establish circadian rhythms
HORMONE RECEPTORS

Remember from our previous

discussion, hormones bind
exclusively to its specific
hormone receptors on specific
target cells. They don’t bind
elsewhere.
HORMONE RECEPTORS
Down-regulation
• Makes a cell less sensitive to a hormone
• Occurs when there’s a high concentration of hormone

Up-regulation
• Makes a cell more sensitive to a hormone
• Occurs when there’s a deficient amount of hormone
CIRCULATING AND LOCAL HORMONES
Circulating hormones
• Pass from secretory cells that
make them into interstitial
fluid and then into the blood
• May linger in the circulation
CIRCULATING AND LOCAL HORMONES
Local hormones
• Act locally on neighbouring
cells or on the same cell that
secreted them without
entering the bloodstream
• Inactivated quickly

• Paracrine
• Act on neighbouring cells
• Autocrine
• Act on the same cell that
secreted them
CHEMICAL CLASSES OF HORMONES

LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES

• Steroid hormones • Amine hormones
• Thyroid hormones • Peptide / protein hormones
• Nitric oxide • Eicosanoid hormones

• Bound to transport proteins • Circulate in its “free form”

(“bound form”) • Administered subcutaneously
• Effective when taken by
mouth or per orem
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES
• Hormones are able to diffuse
through the plasma
membrane.
• Receptors are located within
the target cell, hence binding
happens inside the cell.
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES
• Hormones cannot diffuse
through the plasma
membrane.
• Receptors are located on the
surface of the cell and exist
as integral transmembrane
proteins in the plasma
membrane.
HORMONE INTERACTIONS
The responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone
depends on the following:
1. Hormone concentration in the blood
2. Abundance of target cell’s hormone receptors
3. Influences exerted by other hormones
HORMONE INTERACTIONS
PERMISSIVE EFFECT
• Actions of some hormones on target cells require a simultaneous or recent
exposure to a second hormone.
• E.g. EPINEPHRINE weakly stimulates lipolysis. Together with THYROID
HORMONES, they stimulate lipolysis more powerfully.

SYNERGISTIC EFFECT
• The effect of two hormones acting together is greater than the sum of their
individual effects.
• E.g. GLUCAGON & EPINEPHRINE both increase blood glucose concentration

ANTAGONISTIC EFFECT
• One hormone opposes the action of another hormone.
• E.g. INSULIN promotes glycogen synthesis; GLUCAGON promotes glycogen
breakdown.
HORMONE SECRETION
Hormone secretion is regulated by the following:
1. Signals from the nervous system
2. Chemical changes in the blood
3. Other hormones

Regulation of secretion prevents overproduction or

underproduction of hormones, hence achieving
homeostasis.
HORMONE SECRETION
• Regulation of hormonal function is controlled by feedback
mechanisms from the target organ.

• Two feedback mechanisms:

• Negative feedback
• Occurs when the response diminishes the original
stimulus
• Positive feedback
• Occurs when the response enhances the original
stimulus
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY
GLAND
HYPOTHALAMUS
Secretes five releasing hormones:
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
• Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
HYPOTHALAMUS
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
• Somatocrinin
• Stimulate secretion of GROWTH HORMONE (GH)

Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)

• Stimulates secretion of PROLACTIN (PRL)
HYPOTHALAMUS
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Stimulate secretion of THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE
(TSH)

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

• Stimulate secretion of ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE
(ACTH)

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

• Stimulates secretion of FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE
(FSH) & LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
PITUITARY GLAND
• A pea-shaped compound endocrine gland that measures 1-1.5 cm in
diameter and weights 0.5 g (in males) and 1.5 g (in multiparous
women)

• Lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica of the sphenoid

bone

• Connected to the hypothalamus via the infundibulum

• Has two functional components: anterior pituitary and posterior

pituitary
PITUITARY GLAND

ANTERIOR PITUITARY POSTERIOR PITUITARY

• Adenohypophysis • Neurohypophysis
• 75% of the pituitary gland • 25% of the pituitary gland
• Composed of epithelial tissue • Composed of neural tissue
• Two parts: • Two parts:
• Pars distalis • Pars nervosa
• Pars tuberalis • Infundibulum
• (Pars intermedia)
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
PARS DISTALIS
• Comprises bulk of the anterior pituitary gland
• Arises from the thickened anterior wall of the pouch

PARS INTERMEDIA (*check side notes)

• A thin remnant of the posterior wall of the pouch that abuts the
pars distalis

PARS TUBERALIS
• Arises from the thickened lateral walls of the pouch
• Forms a collar or sheath around the infundibulum
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
PARS NERVOSA
• The larger bulbar portion of the posterior pituitary gland
• Contains neurosecretory axons and their endings

INFUNDIBULUM
• Continuous with the median eminence
• Contains neurosecretory axons forming the
hypothalamohypophyseal tracts
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
1. Somatotrophs
• Secrete GH
2. Thyrotrophs
• Secrete TSH
3. Gonadotrophs
• Secrete FSH & LH
4. Lactotrophs
• Secrete PRL
5. Corticotrophs
• Secrete ACTH; also
MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING
HORMONE (MSH)
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
Secretes two inhibiting hormones:
• Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
• Somatostatin
• Suppresses secretion of GH
• Prolactin-inhibiting hormone
• Dopamine
• Suppresses secretion of PRL
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

TROPIC HORMONES NON-TROPIC HORMONES

• Regulate the • Act directly on

activity of cells in target organs
other endocrine • E.g. GH, PRL
glands throughout
the body
• E.g. ACTH, TSH,
FSH, LH
REGULATION OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
SECRETION
• Release of anterior pituitary
hormones are mostly
regulated by negative
feedback.

• The secretory activities of

THYROTROPHS,
CORTICOTROPHS and
GONADOTROPHS decrease
when blood levels of their
target gland hormones rise.
GROWTH HORMONE

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

GROWTH HORMONE
• Released in pulsatile fashion every few hours

• Secretion is increased by sleep, stress, hormones related to puberty,

starvation, exercise and hypoglycemia

• Secretion is decreased by somatostatin, somatomedins, obesity,

hyperglycemia and pregnancy
GROWTH HORMONE
• Indirectly affects body growth through insulin-like growth factors
(IGF) or somatomedins
• Increase protein synthesis in chondrocytes, muscles and most
organs
• Directly affects metabolism
• Diabetogenic

• Controlled by two hypothalamic hormones:

• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) or SOMATOCRININ
• Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or SOMATOSTATIN
GROWTH HORMONE
Specific functions:
• Increase growth of bones and soft tissues
• Acts via IGF
• Enhance lipolysis
• Lipolysis  increase FA release  ATP production  energy utilised by
growing cells
• Decrease glucose uptake
• Decreased glucose uptake  decreased glucose utilisation for ATP
production
• Hence, making glucose available for neurons instead
• Increase glycogenolysis
• More glucose in the circulation  glucose utilisation for ATP production
 energy utilised by growing cells
REGULATION OF GROWTH HORMONE
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
CONTROL BY IGF

• IGF are produced when GH

acts on target tissues.

• IGF inhibit secretion of GH by

acting directly on the
ANTERIOR PITUITARY and
stimulating secretion of
SOMATOSTATIN from the
HYPOTHALAMUS.
REGULATION OF GROWTH HORMONE
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
CONTROL BY GHRH and GH

• GHRH inhibits its own

secretion from the
HYPOTHALAMUS.

• GH also inhibits its own

secretion by stimulating the
secretion of SOMATOSTATIN
from the HYPOTHALAMUS.
 GHRH
STIMULUS HYPOTHALAMUS
SECRETION

TARGET GH ANT.
CELLS SECRETION PITUITARY

If excessive GH and IGF  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Also suppressed by SOMATOSTATIN
THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE
THYROID HORMONES, CALCITONIN

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

 TRH*
STIMULUS HYPOTHALAMUS
SECRETION

THYROID TSH ANT.

GLAND SECRETION PITUITARY

If excessive T3 and T4  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

T3, T4 T3 downregulates TRH receptors in the anterior pituitary gland
RELEASED *THYROTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE
Also suppressed by SOMATOSTATIN
FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE, LUTEINIZING HORMONE
ESTROGEN, TESTOSTERONE

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

 GnRH*
STIMULUS HYPOTHALAMUS
SECRETION

OVARIES, FSH ANT.

TESTES SECRETION PITUITARY

If excessive ESTROGEN and TESTOSTERONE

ESTROGEN &
TESTOSTERONE  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
RELEASED *GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE
THERE IS NO GONADOTROPIN-INHIBITING HORMONE.
 GnRH*
STIMULUS HYPOTHALAMUS
SECRETION

OVARIES, LH ANT.
TESTES SECRETION PITUITARY

PROGESTERONE, If excessive PROGESTERONE, ESTROGEN & TESTOSTERONE

ESTROGEN &  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
TESTOSTERONE
*GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE
RELEASED
THERE IS NO GONADOTROPIN-INHIBITING HORMONE.
PROLACTIN

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

PROLACTIN
• Major hormone responsible for lactogenesis
• Participates with estrogen in breast development

• Secretion is increased by pregnancy, breastfeeding, sleep, stress,

TRH and dopamine antagonists

• Secretion is decreased by dopamine, bromocriptine (dopamine

agonist), somatostatin and by prolactin via negative feedback
 STIMULUS
together with PRH*
HYPOTHALAMUS
other SECRETION
HORMONES

MILK
PRODUCTION PROLACTIN ANT.
in MAMMARY SECRETION PITUITARY
GLAND

*PROLACTIN-RELEASING HORMONE
Suppressed by DOPAMINE secreted by the HYPOTHALAMUS
PROLACTIN
Premenstrual period
• High dopamine levels, low prolactin levels

During pregnancy
• High prolactin levels
PROLACTIN
Destruction of hypothalamus
• = prolactin excess
• I.e. galactorrhea, amenorrhea
• Due to loss of inhibitory control of dopamine
• May be treated with bromocriptine (dopamine agonist)

Destruction of anterior pituitary

• = prolactin deficiency
• I.e. failure to lactate
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

 CRH*
STIMULUS HYPOTHALAMUS
SECRETION

ADRENAL ACTH ANT.

GLANDS SECRETION PITUITARY

CORTISOL,
If excessive GLUCOCORTICOIDS  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
GLUCO-
*CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE
CORTICOIDS
THERE IS NO GONADOTROPIN-INHIBITING HORMONE.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• Does not synthesize hormones; the HYPOTHALAMUS does
• Paraventricular nuclei
• Synthesizes oxytocin
• Supraoptic nuclei
• Synthesizes antidiuretic hormone

• Stores and releases hormones

SYNTHESIS AND STORAGE OF
HORMONES

HORMONES
SYNTHESIS in
HYPOTHALAMUS

STORED in
HORMONES MOVE via AXON
HYPOTHALAMIC-
STORED in HYPOPHYSEAL
TERMINALS in
VESICLES TRACT POST.
PITUITARY

Stored in axon terminals,

waiting to be released into the bloodstream upon stimulation
OXYTOCIN

POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

OXYTOCIN
• Synthesized in the paraventricular nuclei in the hypothalamus

• Stimuli:
• Suckling of infant
• Cervical dilation, orgasm

• Actions:
• Contraction of uterus
• Contraction of myoepithelial cells in the breast  milk ejection
 STIMULUS
RVICA

RELEASE OF
EXOCYTOSIS
HYPOTHALAMUS OXYTOCIN TO
of VESICLES BLOODSTREAM

UTERUS,
BREAST
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE

POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
• Vasopressin
• Synthesized in the supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus
• Primarily decreases urine production
• Regulates serum osmolarity by increasing water permeability of the
late distal tubules and collecting ducts  returning more water to
blood  decreasing urine volume
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
Stimuli:
• Increased serum osmolarity (detected via osmoreceptors)
• Decreased blood volume (detected via volume receptors)

Actions:
• Increase water permeability
• Constriction of vascular smooth muscles
 EXOCYTOSIS
OSMO-
INC SERUM of VESICLES
RECEPTORS in
OSMOLARITY HYPOTHALAMUS CONTAINING
ADH

KIDNEYS KIDNEY,
RETAIN WATER; SMOOTH RELEASE OF
SMOOTH MUSCLES in ADH TO
MUSCLES BLOOD BLOODSTREAM
CONSTRICT VESSELS

DEC URINE OUTPUT;

INC BLOOD If excessive GLUCOCORTICOIDS  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
PRESSURE;
RETAINED BLOOD *CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE
VOLUME
THERE IS NO GONADOTROPIN-INHIBITING HORMONE.