5.

Waves, Light, Electromagnetic waves ``

Properties of waves
If a rock is tossed into water, the rock creates a disturbance at the place where it hits water. The
disturbance moves along the water, which is the wave. The water here goes up and down locally
wherever the wave reaches, a motion perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels.
But the the water itself does not travel. This type of wave is called Transverse waves. Similarly
we can observe a different kind of wave when we compress and release one end of a long
spring. Here too we see a disturbance moving along the spring, consisting of successive
compression and elongation locally. This is also a wave but here the local to and fro movement
of the spring is in the same direction in which the wave travels. Sound wave is this type of
wave. This type of wave is called Longitudinal wave.

A longitudinal wave on a spring

Whether it is perpendicular or in the same direction the vibration involves a length of the
wave, which repeats itself periodically. This length is called wavelength. The frequency of
the series of waves is the number of complete waves that pass a fixed point in each second.
This is measured as cycles per second, which is also called the unit hertz.
The speed of the wave = frequency x wavelength.

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 The either type of the waves mentioned above can be represented by a graph like the one
given above. Apart from the wavelength it also shows another measure of the wave – its
amplitude which shows the maximum distance through which the material is displaced
from its rest position when the wave passes by. In the case of water wave this determines
how high the wave is. In the case of sound wave it determines how loud is the sound,
whereas the wavelength and oppositely frequency determines how high or low is the pitch
of the sound. High pitch means short wave-length and high frequency. In all cases the
energy in a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
Wave phenomena
Reflection: When a wave reaches the edge of its traveling medium, or when there is an
abrupt change in medium, part or all of the wave is reflected.
Refraction: When the wave travels from one region into another in which its speed is
different, there is a sharp change of direction of travel. This phenomenon is called
refraction.
Diffraction When the wave passes a corner it bends around the corner. For example if it
passes through a hole, this can be noticed. This is called diffraction. The amount of bending
depends on how big is the hole and how long is the wavelength of the wave. Diffraction is
less obvious if the hole is much bigger than the wavelength, but it becomes prominent when
the hole is not much bigger than the wavelength.

Interference: When two wave trains move through the same space (medium) they
superimpose on each other. At each point of superimposition the resultant vibration is
obtained by adding the two vibrations at that point. If they are in opposite direction they
tend to cancel each other. Thus we may get a pattern of strong amplitude region and a
weak amplitude region next to it. This phenomenon is called Interference.
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 Diagram illustrating the two source interference pattern – the interference pattern
caused by waves from two oscillators vibrating at the same frequency.

Q. Can you demonstrate the various phenomena of waves in the case of sound?
A. The echo is the reflection of sound. The refraction of sound takes place when it moves from
air to water for example, but this is not very much noticeable in case of sound. Diffraction, on
the other hand, is quite obvious in the case of sound, since we can hear around corner. In some
auditoriums there are spots in which it is hard to hear the music, although there are spots all
around it where it is easy to hear. This is because of destructive interference between sound
waves getting reflected from roof, wall etc with that coming direct from the loud speaker. Sound
wave has a definite speed which can be easily measured, such as by measuring the time between
when you see the workman at a known distance striking something with a hammer, and when
you hear the sound of it.
Q. What are the sources of various waves?
A. In case of water wave we saw that a rock striking the water started the water wave. If a rock
or something else continues an up-down motion at that spot the wave will be a continuous one –
continuously spreading from that spot till that up-down motion stops. Any vibratory system that
creates such a disturbance repeatedly is called an Oscillator . Most waves will need an oscillator
as its source such as tuning fork or a bell in the case of sound wave.
Q. Does a wave carry energy? How do we know that waves carry energy?
A. The fact that water wave after reaching an object floating in its path or a sapling at the edge
of the tank put those things in motion, making these to do some work, shows that it carries
energy. Similarly a very loud sound of explosion can shutter windows or damage our eardrum,
thereby showing that it carries energy.

Q. Does waves always need a medium?

A. In case of sound, or water wave or many other waves it does. For example if we cover a bell
with a upturned jar, and seal its open mouth air tight, and then evacuate it, we can not hear when
the bell rings.
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But all waves do not need a medium. Light, for example as we will see, is a wave which does
not need a medium. Its vibration can take place in empty space too, and the wave propagates
there too.
Q. What happens when a boundary in the medium causes a wave to reflect back and interfere
with itself?
A. Let us think of a guitar string which has been plucked. The waves that continuously reflect
off the two bound ends of the string interfere. This creates standing waves in the string when
interference takes place constructively. There will be places in the string which will be
permanently still (called nodes), and other points which will be permanently in maximum
vibration, the points in between will vibrate with intermediate strength creating distinct loops
between the nodes always maintaining this standing wave. The length of a loop will be half the
wave length of the original travelling wave. Only certain frequencies can do this. The lowest
such frequency is called fundamental – the main sound made by the guitar string when plucked.
The higher frequencies in this case are integer multiples of the fundamental, and are called
harmonics. These harmonies or overtones make the sound of the string rich and pleasing to
listen to.

Light wave
Experiment over centuries have shown that light demonstrates all the properties of wave.
Reflection and refraction of light are quite obvious. As early as 1676 it was realized that light has a
definite speed to reach from one place to another, though the speed is very high and difficult to
measure. Starting from that time the speed has, however, been measured more and more
accurately.
The speed is symbolized by c and its value is c= 2.99793 x 108 meter/sec.
(roughly 300 million meter /sec.)

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 Careful experiments have clearly shown that light has diffraction and interference. For
example if light from a source are taken through two parallel slits, light coming out from
the two slits act as two wave trains with the same frequency. They strike a screen kept in
front where the two wave trains superimpose on each other, interfere, and create the pattern
of bright and dark fringes as is expected of such waves. From the theory of wave it is
possible to calculate the wavelength of light from the distances of these fringes, and other
parameters of the experiment, even better if we use light of single wavelength (single color)
in the first place.
Using a single slit, instead of two, and receiving the light passing through the slit on a
screen, we can show that light also demonstrates diffraction, that is it bends at the corner,
just like other waves.
All these, and a few more properties show clearly that light is a wave. Light of different
colors are waves of different wavelength, the violet has the shortest wavelength among the
visible light and red has the longest wavelength.

As a prism or a series of thin slits very close to each other forming what is called a
diffraction grating can separate these wavelengths and we see the various colors in white
light in VIBGYOR formation. This is called spectrum of light.
Electromagnetic wave
We have seen before that Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism has predicated the
existence of wave of electromagnetic wave with the speed same as that of light. Therefore,
it seemed evident that light itself must be a wave in the electromagnetic field. Such wave in
general is called electromagnetic wave. Later it was found that light wave, ultraviolet
waves, infrared waves, x-rays, microwaves, radio waves and some others are all
electromagnetic waves of different frequencies. All of these form a much wider spectrum
than the one of visible light we have seen. It was indeed an impressive intellectual
achievement to include so much nature in one organized theory.
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In electromagnetic waves both electric and magnetic field vibrate in perpendicular directions
of propagation of the wave, as expected in a transverses wave. The electric field and magnetic
field need no medium to exist or to vibrate.
An electromagnetic wave can get started with can electron or any other charge acting like an
oscillator. This means we will make the electron move back and forth, when it moves its
electric field will also move creating a vibration in the electric field. A moving electron also
causes a current, which sets up a magnetic field will also move creating a vibration in the
electric field. As the electron is accelerated in the back and forth motion, its velocity and
therefore the current changes, changing the magnetic field. Thus by oscillating an electron we
have set up vibration of both an electric field and a magnetic field. This disturbance produces
electromagnetic waves moving outwards at the speed of light. Thus the laws of
electromagnetism dictate that an accelerating electric charge should radiate electromagnetic
waves, but not an uniformly moving charge.

The oscillating electron can be in an atom, and thus visible light, ultra violate, infrared, x-ray
etc. can be emitted from atoms in various circumstances. These all are electromagnetic waves
of various wavelengths. Or the oscillating electron may be in the transmilling antenna of a
radio broadcasting station, which would then emit radio waves, or a in a microwave generating
device emitting microwave. Maxwell's theory predicted the existence of such radio waves
produced by rapidly alternating electrical currents. It showed that it actually carry definite
amount of energy in spite of the fact that it is the oscillation of field, so far regarded as a mere
mathematical or convenient appendage, which is carrying the energy, not any material
particles. Momentum is also carried by this wave. That is why light can exert pressure on an
object and cause it to move. These make electric and magnetic field appear very real, even
though they are not material. Both particle and field seem to be fundamental realities of nature.
The remarkable fact that energy can indeed be transported by these ‘disembodied’
electromagnetic waves was experimentally confirmed by Hertz. He created such an
electromagnetic disturbance by rapidly alternating currents and could detect a similar weaker
current in a loop some distance away, thus actually detecting the electromagnetic wave and its
energy. From then on scientists have created and detected radio waves at various distance –
some extremely long – and used these wireless devices for various purposes.

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 Q. Why do we think that light wave exists? How do these reasons differ from our reasons for
believing that other kinds of wave exist such as water wave or sound wave?
Q. Would you try to measure the speed of light with a stopwatch? How would you then
measure it?
A. Hint for second part: Oscilloscopes can measure very short time. For another older
method, see the figure. By knowing how fast the wheel must rotate in order to block or admit
the reflected returning light, we can find the total time it takes for the light pulse to travel
back and forth.

Q. Why if light is a wave, do we speak of light rays.

A. Hint: The wavelength of light is very small, hence its spread is small (diffraction and
hence the deviation from sharp shadow is small).

Q. Sometimes light or wave is referred to as ‘polarized’. What does this mean?

A. In an ordinary transverse wave the vibration may take place in various planes each one
perpendicular to the direction of wave. The same is true about light. There are special
material made up molecules in such formation that it allows light waves only in one plane of
vibration, a plate made of this material is called Polaroid sheet. If light goes through it only
light vibrating in a particular planes is allowed through, the other parts are absorbed.

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This light is called polarized light. If now another polarized sheet is used in the path of this
polarized light it can stop the light in case this plate’s orientation is perpendicular to the
first one (see figure). Light can also be polarized by other methods. Light reflected from a
surface is often strongly polarized. If we use polaroid sheets in sunglass which are oriented
to absorb much of this polarized reflected light, we can avoid disturbing glare caused by
this. Only transverse wave can be polarized.
Q. How could you convince someone that light is a transverse wave?
Q. Why does a radio or TV set use an antenna?
Q. Now a days optical telecommunication is common using laser light through optical fibre.
What is laser? What is optical fibre?
A. Laser is light where all the waves are in step (coherent). Its beam therefore does not
spread as it propagates, and therefore it maintains a high intensity. This is produced by
exciting atoms electrically to emit light in a coherent manner. It can carry digital signals to
long distances often travelling through a specially made glass fibre with very little loss of
energy. This is called optical fibre.
Q. Why does IR radiation differ from UV radiation in its effect on human body?
A. IR being of longer wavelength raises body temperature locally and thus causes burns.
UV has shorter wavelength, and, therefore, has higher energy and more penetration into the
body causing severe deep burns and even cancer. It also brings superficial change in skin
such as tanning.
Q. Why do you see colors on CD ?
A. The regularly spaced tracks on a CD act as a reflecting diffraction grating, splitting up
white light into a spectrum.