CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

IN CURRICULUM
Week 1 (6 Jan 2020)
PART 1
 Today’s menu

CONCEPTS AND ISSUES IN CURRICULUM

Part 1
 Definitions
 Planned, Enacted & Hidden
 Curriculum, Syllabus, Course & Programme?
Part 2
Forces that influence curriculum construction
 Political, economic and social
 Concerns of different stakeholders in the Malaysian context
UNPACKING YOUR
BELIEFS/THOUGHTS

What do you know about curriculum?

 Curriculum : a definition

“An educational programme which states: (a)

the educational purpose of the programme (the
Do you agree with ends); (b) the contents, teaching procedures and
this definition of learning experiences which will be necessary to
curriculum? What do achieve this purpose (the means); (c)some
you think might be means for assessing whether or not the
missing? educational ends have been achieved.”
(Richards et al, 1985:70)
Questions which the above definition answers

 What to teach? (what knowledge is of worth)

 How to teach? (enabling activities)
 When to teach? (way to organize)
 What is the impact of teaching? (have they acquired?)
 WHAT GOES IN THE CURRICULUM?

 A set of subjects.
 Content
 A program of studies.
 A set of materials
 A sequence of courses.
 A course of study
 A set of performance objectives
 WHAT GOES IN THE CURRICULUM? (cont’d)

 Everything that goes on within a school;

 Everything that is planned by school personnel;
 That which is taught both inside and outside of school
directed by the school;
 WHAT GOES IN THE CURRICULUM? (cont’d)

 A series of experiences undergone by learners in school;

and
 That which an individual learner experiences as a result of
schooling.

Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston:

Little, Brown & Company. 1982.
 
Depth and breadth of a
curriculum

9
 Definition 1

Curriculum is such “permanent” subjects as

grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric,
mathematics, and the greatest books of the
Western world that best embody essential
knowledge.
 Definition 1: Implications

 Subject matter forms body of content; product of accumulated

wisdom
 The Malaysian National Curriculum core subjects and
electives; UK’s has core and foundational subjects
 Limitedto only a few academic subjects; would this
disadvantage students?
Definition 1: Implications (cont’d)

 Assumes that what is studied is what is learned.

 “Does the state of knowledge change?”
 “If so, shouldn’t the subjects making up the curriculum also
change?”
 “What makes learning such subjects essential?”
 Does such knowledge-based curriculum exist independently of
space and time?
 Definition 2

Curriculum is those subjects that are most

useful for living in
contemporary society.
 Definition 2: Implications

 Subjectsusually chosen in terms of major present-day issues

and problems within society
 Isthere provision for students’ choice as to which are most
useful?
 Is the contemporary of more value than what is long-lasting
or futuristic?
 Definition 2: Implications (cont’d)

 Does it encourage schools and students to accommodate

themselves to society as it exists instead of attempting to
improve it?
 “What accounts for stability in the curriculum?”
 “What is useful knowledge?”
 “Ifuseful practical skills are increasingly emphasized, what
becomes of intellectual development?”
 Definition 3

Curriculum is all planned learnings for

which the school is responsible.
 Definition 3: Implications

 “Planned learnings” can be long written documents

specifying content, shorter lists of intended learning
outcomes, or simply the general ideas of teachers about
what students should know.
 Assumes that what is studied is what is learned.
 Limit “planned learnings” to those that are easiest to
achieve, not those that are most desirable.
 Definition 3: Implications (cont’d)

 “On what basis does the school select and take responsibility
for certain learnings while excluding others?”
 “Isit possible for teachers to separate the ends of instruction
from the means?”
 “Are unplanned, but actual learnings excluded from the
curriculum?”
 Definition 4

Curriculum is all the experiences learners

have under the guidance of the school.
 Definition 4: Implications

 Set of experiences in educational context

 Activities and experiences seen as the same.
 No basis for differentiating desirable and undesirable
experiences.
 Make tasks of school too impossibly broad.
 Definition 4: Implications cont’d

“Do all purposively planned and encountered

(unplanned) experiences count as part of the
curriculum?”
“Which experiences are unique to school?”
“What is the relationship between subject matter and
experience?”
 Definition 5

Curriculum is what the student constructs

from working with the computer and its
various networks, such as the Internet.
Definition 5: Implications

 Teachers’ abilities to develop computer skills

 Students can locate electronic resources
 Are teachers needed?
 New roles for teachers
 Definition 5: Implications (cont’d)

 New issues in learning and management

 Socialskills are also developed through chat groups,
conferences, and e-mail communications
 Are interpersonal skills affected?
 Implicationson provision of facilities and technologies at
home, school, office
 Definition 5: Implications (cont’d)

 Issue of equity and level of access

 Technology is not a neutral tool. What is now available on the
Internet, for e.g., is not necessarily what should be on it or what
will be on it tomorrow.
 How active is learning? May prove to be far more passive than
commonly believed. Active or constructivist learning made
possible by computers is debatable.
IN A NUTSHELL..

 CURRICULUM IS A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR

AN EDUCATIONAL/TRAINING
PROGRAMME/COURSE TO OFFER
NEW/IMPROVED MANPOWER TO FULFIL THE
RISING NEEDS OF A DYNAMIC SOCIETY.
 CURRICULUM DEFINED

 A curriculum is a “plan or program of all experiences which

the learner encounters under the direction of a school” (Tanner
and Tanner, 1995: 158).
 Accordingto Gatawa (1990: 8), it is “the totality of the
experiences of children for which schools are responsible”.
CURRICULUM DEFINED (cont’d)

 Allthis is in agreement with Sergiovanni and Starrat

(1983), who argue that curriculum is “that which a student
is supposed to encounter, study, practice and master what
the student learns”.
 Forothers such as Beach and Reinhatz (1989: 97), a
curriculum outlines a “prescribed series of courses to
take”.
 FEATURES OF CURRICULUM

 Based on the definitions above, it is possible to state that a

curriculum has the following characteristics:
 It comprises the experiences of children for which the school
is responsible.
 It has content.
 It is planned.
 It is a series of courses to be taken by students.
 FEATURES OF CURRICULUM (cont’d)

 In addition, a curriculum considers the learners and their

interaction with each other, the teacher and the materials.
 The output and outcomes of a curriculum are evaluated.
FEATURES OF CURRICULUM (cont’d)

 Bringing all these points together, the curriculum is

viewed as a composite whole including the learner, the
teacher, teaching and learning methodologies,
anticipated and unanticipated experiences, outputs and
outcomes possible within a learning context.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CURRICULUM

 Purposeful aims and objectives – The aims and objectives

must be clearly and precisely stated bearing in mind the societal
values and the needs of the child. In selecting and stating the
aims and objectives, consideration should be given to the
learner’s age level of development, needs and interests. The
economic attainment, religion, philosophy and norms of the
people should also be put into consideration.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CURRICULUM

 Functionality – The curriculum planned must be workable,

practicable and feasible. For a curriculum planned to be called
functional, it must be stated in clear and understandable terms.
Practicability is another criteria for judging the functionality of a
curriculum. The curriculum should be able to succeed given the
human and economic resources available. It should also be acceptable
by the people in a given society. It should strike a balance between
theory and practice. Issues in the curriculum should be attainable.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CURRICULUM

 Flexibility – The curriculum must be capable of adapting to the needs

of the changing learner and the society. Since education is not static, it
should change with the Since education is not static, it should change
with the society. It must be flexible and be able to create an avenue for
growth and development to attain the predetermined objectives. In
order words, it should be it should be sufficiently flexible to enhance
its adaptation to the changing condition and needs of the people.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CURRICULUM

 Relevance – It should emphasize those aspects that will be of

benefit to the learner and the society. The curriculum should
assist in helping to ease contact between the learner and his
studies, socialize him and facilitate the transfer of knowledge
and developmental skills to the entire populace.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CURRICULUM

 Evaluation – It should be subjected to evaluation to ensure that

there is progress and that such a progress is in the desired
direction. Evaluation as a characteristic could facilitate learning
and teaching. It could produce records appropriate to the
purpose for which records are essential and provide feedback
for curriculum planners and teachers.
 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES

 Curriculum perspectives are theories of knowledge which are an important source

of curriculum decisions. Zewii (1984),
 cited in Gatawa (1990: 21), states that what goes into the curriculum depends
heavily on these perspectives. There are a number of curriculum perspectives that
you should be familiar with.
 rationalist
 empiricist
 pragmatist
 existentialist.
 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES (cont’d)

 Cited in Gatawa (1990: 21):

what goes into the curriculum depends heavily on these
perspectives. There are a number of curriculum perspectives that you
should be familiar with.
 rationalist
 empiricist
 pragmatist
 existentialist.
 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES (cont’d)

It is important to consider each perspective as they relate to

the following:
 the learner
 the teacher
 methodology
 curriculum.
 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES (cont’d)

Rationalists say:
 True knowledge is achieved by the mind.
 Knowledge is a series of revelations.

Empiricists think:
 True knowledge is derived from evidence.
 Authentic knowledge comes through the senses.
 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES (cont’d)

Pragmatists believe that:

 Knowledge is hypothetical and changing constantly.
 Knowledge is experienced.
 Knowledge cannot be imposed on the learner.
 Knowledge is a personal activity.
 Knowledge is socially constructed.
 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES (cont’d)

Existentialists or phenomenologists conclude that:

 Knowledge is personal and subjective.
 Knowledge is one’s own unique perception of one’s
world.
 Education should be less formal.
ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM

The curriculum has four elements that are in constant

interaction:
 purpose (goals and objectives)
 content or subject matter
 methods or learning experiences
 evaluation.
ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM (cont’d)

 Itis the interaction of these elements in the

social, political, economic, technological and
environmental context that constitutes a
curriculum.
 PURPOSE OF CURRICULUM

The purpose of a curriculum:

 is based on the social aspirations of society,
 outlines the goals and aims of the programme, and
 is expressed as goals and objectives.
 PURPOSE OF CURRICULUM (cont’d)

There are three categories of goals and objectives:

 cognitive, referring to intellectual tasks,
 psychomotor, referring to muscular skills, and
 affective, referring to feeling and emotions.
 CONTENT AND SUBJECT MATTER

The content of the curriculum:

 is divided into bodies of knowledge, for example,
 Mathematics, English and Science;
 outlines the desired attitudes and values; includes cherished
skills; is determined by prevailing theories of knowledge;
and caters to ideological, vocational and technical
considerations.
 METHODS

The methods outlined in a curriculum:

 Deal with teaching and learning experiences, and
involve organisational strategies.
 Flexible teaching methods that facilitate learning.
 EVALUATION

Evaluation is used to:

 selectappropriate content based on the aims and
objectives of the curriculum;
 select appropriate methods to address the content and
purpose; check the effectiveness of methods and
learning experiences used;
 EVALUATION (cont’d)

 checkon the suitability and the appropriateness of the

curriculum in answering social needs;
 give
feedback to the planners, learners, teachers,
industry and society; and provide a rationale for
making changes.
 EVALUATION (cont’d)

You should note that in conducting evaluations, judgements

must be made regarding:
 inputs,
 means,
 content,
 outputs, and
 outcomes of the whole learning process.
Types of curricula

 Planned
 Enacted
 Hidden
 CURRICULUM is a statement:

 Of what students should know (knowledge or content);

 Be able to do (skills);
 How it is taught (instruction);
 How it is measured (assessment); and
 How the educational system is organised (context).
 CURRICULUM is

a structured plan of intended learning outcomes, involving knowledge, skills,

behaviour and associated learning experiences organised as a sequence of
events that a student acquires through education and training. How we conceive
of the curriculum is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning
about curriculum reflect how we think, study and act on the education made
available to students. In short, how we define the curriculum reflects our
assumptions about the world
(Cornbleth, 1990)
 DEFINISI KURIKULUM
KEBANGSAAN

“… SUATU PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN YANG TERMASUK

KURIKULUM DAN KEGIATAN KOKURIKULUM YANG
MERANGKUMI SEMUA PENGETAHUAN, KEMAHIRAN, NORMA,
NILAI, UNSUR KEBUDAYAAN DAN KEPERCAYAAN UNTUK
MEMBANTU PERKEMBANGAN SESEORANG MURID DENGAN
SEPENUHNYA DARI SEGI JASMANI, ROHANI, MENTAL DAN
EMOSI SERTA UNTUK MENANAM DAN MEMPERTINGKATKAN
NILAI MORAL YANG DIINGINI DAN UNTUK MENYAMPAIKAN
PENGETAHUAN”
AKTA PENDIDIKAN 1996
PERATURAN-PERATURAN KURIKULUM KEBANGSAAN
PENDIDIKAN 1997
Definition of the Malaysian National Curriculum

“… an educational programme that includes curriculum and co-

curricular activities which encompass all knowledge, skills, norms,
values, cultural elements and beliefs to help fully develop a pupil
physically, spiritually, mentally and emotionally as well as to
inculcate and develop desirable moral values and to transmit
knowledge.”

(Akta Pendidikan 1996)

 PLANNED CURRICULUM
(OVERT/ EXPLICIT/ INTENDED)

 The overt curriculum is the open, or public, dimension and

includes current and historical interpretations, learning
experiences, and learning outcomes.
 the intended curriculum is captured most explicitly in state
content standards.
 PLANNED CURRICULUM
(OVERT/ EXPLICIT/ INTENDED)
(cont’d)

 statements of what every student must know and be able to do by

some specified point in time. What students are supposed to learn.
 Openly discussed, consciously planned, usually written down,
presented through the instructional process
 Textbooks, learning kits, lesson plans, school plays etc.
 ENACTED CURRICULUM

 The enacted curriculum refers to instruction (e.g. what happens

in classrooms).
 the content actually delivered during instruction (i.e.,
instructional content), as well as how it is taught (i.e.,
instructional practices). Typically, the content targets are based
on the intended/planned curriculum.
 ENACTED CURRICULUM (cont’d)

 In other words, the enacted curriculum is what students get the

chance to learn, as well as how teachers "deliver" the content. 
 The “Enacted Curriculum” reflects the daily curricular
experience of a student within instructional settings
exemplified by assignments, instructional practices, and
managed content.
 THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM

 Curriculum refers to all planned/intentional learnings that

students are deliberately exposed to in a programme
 Unplanned learnings are acquired as well
 Hiddenness – to students and teachers
 Unintended by scholars, planners, educators; something done to
learners, not with them
 HIDDEN CURRICULUM (INVISIBLE/
COVERT)

 A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an education, "[lessons]

which are learned but not openly intended” such as the
transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the
classroom and the social environment. Any learning experience
may teach unintended lessons.
 HIDDEN CURRICULUM (INVISIBLE/
COVERT)

 Attitudes and values are learnt and modified through classroom

and school experience as well as relationships between and
among individuals in the classroom and school
 The non-academic outcomes of formal education are sometimes
of greater consequence than is learning the subject matter.
 THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM (cont’d)

 Not explicitly stated in curriculum and policy documents,

teacher’s written or oral list of objectives, curriculum projects;
inferred over time; perceived as part of social reality
 Levels - classroom, school and school system in societal context
 Through staff, students, text books, syllabuses, circulars,
directives, pamphlets, announcements, structures, rules,
regulations, ceremonies, assemblies, field trips
Relationships between Types of Curricula

1. PLANNED 2.ENACTED 3.HIDDEN

CURRICULUM CURRICULUM CURRICULUM
 Relationship between Types of Curricula (cont’d)

 Circle 1 represents the presented, formal learning experiences

as per the objectives of the curriculum or syllabus.
 Circle2 represents the learning experiences students acquire –
values that cannot be categorised in the formal or informal
curriculum.
 Circle3 represents what students actually learn from both the
formal and hidden curricula.
 Relationship between Types of Curricula
(cont’d)

Core Curriculum
You may have also come across the term ‘core curriculum’ in your
readings. This is not an independent type of curriculum. It refers to
the area of study, courses or subjects that students must understand
in order to be recognised as educated in the area. In other words,
‘core’ refers to the ‘heart’ of experiences every learner must go
through. The learner has no option but to study the prescribed course
or subjects.
 Educational Programme

 Coherent set or sequence of educational activities designed and organized to

achieve pre-determined learning objectives or accomplish a specific set of
educational tasks over a sustained period. Within an educational programme,
educational activities may also be grouped into sub-components variously
described in national contexts as ‘courses’, ‘modules’, ‘units’, and/or
‘subjects’. A programme may have major components not normally
characterized as courses, units, or modules – for example, play-based activities,
periods of work experience, research projects and the preparation of
dissertations.
 What is syllabus?

 A syllabus is simply an outline and time line of a particular

course. It will typically give a brief overview of the course
objectives, course expectations, list reading assignments,
homework deadlines, and exam dates.
 A syllabus is a document which consist, essentially, of list.
This list specifies all the things that are to be taught in the
course. (Penny Ur, 1998)
 The difference between curriculum and
syllabus

Curriculum Syllabus
 Curriculum is for a course.  Syllabus is for a subject.
 Curriculum is the superset.  Syllabusis the subset of the
 Curriculum is a consideration curriculum.
of the objectives, the contents,  Syllabusis the concepts to
methods chosen to achieve the be taught.
objective.
 CURRICULUM VS SYLLABUS

Curriculum Syllabus
Curriculum is a focus of A syllabus is simply an outline and
study, consisting of time line of a particular course. It
various courses all will typically give a brief overview
designed to reach a of the course objectives, course
particular proficiency or expectations, list reading
qualification. assignments, homework deadlines,
and exam dates.
 CURRICULUM VS COURSE OF STUDY

A course is a set of inventory items grouped together for ease of

assignment and tracking. Curriculum refers to the training
assigned to a student. A curriculum can consist of more than one
course.
In summary

Programme

Curriculum

Course 1 Course 2 Course 3

Syllabus Syllabus Syllabus

Tutorial task

 Explain with examples three types of curriculum namely

planned, enacted and hidden curriculum (graphic
presentation)
 In your groups, based on what you have learnt in the
lecture, analyse Malaysia’s education curriculum. - in
terms of its characteristics, definition, perspectives