Dr N.

Chikumba

Arthrology
Arthrology

 It is the study of the articulations (unions)

between bones, which are commonly called
JOINTS.
Classification of Joints
Functional classification
 Based on the amount of movement, the joints in the
skeleton may be classified as:
 Synarthroses (immovable joints)
 Amphiarthroses (slightly movable joints)
 Diarthroses (freely movable joints)
Classification of Joints

Structural classification
 Based on their structure and the material binding
them, the joints may be classified as;
 Fibrous joints
 Cartilagenous joints
 Synovial joints
Fibrous joints
 Bones connected by fibrous tissue (dense
regular connective tissue).
 No joint cavity
 Slightly movable (Amphiarthroses) or not at
all (Synarthroses).
 Types
 Sutures
 Syndesmoses
 Gomphoses
Fibrous joints

Sutures
 A suture refers to the junction between bones
of skull which are united by fibrous tissue
early in life but may ossify after maturity.
 The bony junctions in mature animals are
called “synostoses”.
Fibrous joints

Syndesmoses
 Refers to bones connected by ligaments only.
 Examples:
 Joint between the distal extremities of the
Tibia and fibula.
Fibrous joints

Gomphoses
 Refers to the articulation of teeth in their sockets in
the mandible and maxillae.
Cartilaginous joints

 Articulating bones united by cartilage.

 They contain no joint cavity.
 Not highly movable (amphiarthroses)
 Types:
 Synchondroses (singular: synchondrosis)
 Symphyses (singular: symphysis)
Cartilaginous joints

Synchondroses
 Hyaline cartilage unites the bones
 Immovable (synarthroses)
 Examples:
 Epiphyseal plates: the union of the diaphysis and
epiphysis of an immature bone.
 Joint between first rib’s costal cartilage and
manubrium of the sternum.
Cartilaginous joints

Symphyses
 Fibrocartilage unites the bones.
 Slightly movable (amphiarthroses)
 Resilient shock absorber
 Provide strength and flexibility
 Hyaline cartilage on articular surfaces of bones to
reduce friction.
 Examples
 Intervertebral discs.
 Pubic symphysis of the pelvis.
Synovial joints
 Include most of the body’s joints.

 All are diarthroses (freely movable)

 All contain fluid-filled joint cavity

General Structure of Synovial Joints

 The structure of most synovial joints is similar

and includes the following:
i. Articular surfaces
ii. Articular cartilages
iii. Articular cavity
iv. Joint capsule
v. Ligaments
General structure of synovial joints (cont.)

1. Articular surfaces
 These are specialized layers of compact bone on
the surfaces that articulate with other bones.
2. Articular cartilage
 It is a layer of hyaline cartilage covering the
articular surface.
3. Articular cavity
 It is a potential space between adjacent bones and
is surrounded by the joint capsule. Small amount of
synovial fluid.
 General structure of synovial joints (cont.)

4. Joint capsule
 Two layered
 Outer*: fibrous capsule of dense
irregular connective tissue continuous
with periosteum
 Inner*: synovial membrane of loose
*
connective tissue (makes synovial fluid).
*
 Synovial fluid: Filtrate of blood;
Contains special glycoproteins;
Nourishes cartilage and functions as
*
slippery lubricant.

 Lines all internal joint surfaces not

covered by cartilage*
General structure of synovial joints (cont.)

5. Reinforcing ligaments (some joints)

 These are connective tissue bands that extend from
bone to bone.
 They are named according to their location in
relation to the joint capsule.
 Intracapsular (intra-articular) ligaments: found
within joints and are surrounded by the joint
capsule.
 Extracapsular (periarticular) ligaments: they are
found outside the joint capsule.
 Movements of synovial joints
Type of movement Description
Flexion Movement in the sagittal plane that
tends to decrease the angle between
segments making up a joint.
Extension The reverse of flexion and refers to
movement in the sagittal plane that
tends to increase the angle between
segments forming a joint.
Rotation Twisting movement of a segment around
its own axis e.g. Turning of the head from
side to side .
Adduction Movement of an extremity towards the
median plane.
Abduction Movement of an extremity away from the
median plane.
Movements of synovial joints
(cont’d)
Type of movement Description
Circumduction Movement in which an extremity
describes a cone and the distal end
of an extremity describes a circle.
Pronation A movement that tends to rotate an
extremity so that the dorsum is up.
Supination A movement that tends to rotate an
extremity so that the palmar or
planter aspect of the limb is up.
Joint movements pics
(from Marieb, 4th ed.)
Types of synovial joints

 Based on the type of joint surface and

movements possible, synovial joints are
classified as;
 1. Ginglymus.
 2. Arthrodial.
 3. Trochoid.
 4. Spheroid (enarthrodial).
Ginglymus (Hinge) joint

 They move only in the sagittal plane.

 The movements possible in this type of joint
are flexion, extension and hyperextension.
Example:
 The Fetlock joint
Arthrodial (Plane) joints

 These have only a slight gliding movement

between relatively flat opposed surfaces.
 The surfaces are called facets.
Example
 Joints between adjacent carpal bones
Trochoid (Pivot) Joint

 It allows for rotary movement around one

axis.
 Example:
 Atlanto-axial joint: The joint in the upper part of
the neck between the first and second cervical
vertebrae; the atlas and axis, respectively.
Sphreroid (Enarthrodial or ball-and
socket) joint
 These permit movement in nearly any
direction.
 Example:
 The coxo-femoral (hip) joint.
Synovial joints classified by shape
(of their articular surfaces)

 Plane
 Hinge Pivot
 Condyloid
 Saddle
 Ball-and-socket
JOINTS OF THE AXIAL
SKELETON
JOINTS OF THE SKULL

 Joints of the skull are mainly of the SUTURE

type.
 In these joints, adjacent cranial and/ or facial
bones are united by fibrous tissue.
 The fibre ossifies (i.e. it is turned into bone) in
older animals, such that the bones of the skull
appear as one solid bone instead of several
bones.
Joints of the skull cont’d

 Some of the joints in the skull do not belong

to the suture group of joints, e.g.:
 The joint which unites the 2 mandibles of the
lower jaw is a symphysis joint.
 The joint between the sphenoid and occipital
bones is a synchondrosis joint. The union of
these bones is through cartilage rather than
fibrous tissue as in suture joints.
 The joint between the temporal bones and the
mandibles (lower jaws) is the only moveable joint in the
skull.
 This joint is technically known as the temporo-
mandibular joint, opens and closes the mouth.
 It is known as a HINGE JOINT (also called GINGLYMUS
JOINT)
However if you watch cattle or goats ruminating, you will
notice that the joint also moves the jaws from side to
side. Therefore, the joint can also be considered as a
sliding joint (also called ARTHRODIAL JOINT)
JOINT BETWEEN THE SKULL & THE
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 The only physical bony connection between the skull
and the vertebral column is the joint between the
OCCIPITAL of the skull and the ATLAS which is the first
bone of the vertebral column.
 This joint is made by the two condyles of the occipital
bone which fit into corresponding depressions on the
atlas bone.
 The only movements possible between these bones are
flexion and extension of the head (Similar to nodding
yes on the longitudinal plane)
 It is a HINGE type joint.
JOINTS BETWEEN VERTEBRAL
BONES
 Animals rotate their heads (when browsing leaves
from trees or shrubs) by using the joint btwn the
ATLAS and the AXIS vertebrae.
 The axis has a tooth like projection (called the
dens) at the anterior end of its surface which fits
into the vertebral foramen of the ATLAS and is
held firmly by ligaments.
 The joint btwn the dens and the vertebral
foramen of the ATLAS only allows a rotary
movement of the ATLAS and the HEAD.
 The rest of the vertebrae (except the sacrum) from the
posterior side of axis up to the last bone in the tail are
linked by AMPHIARTHROIDAL joints.
 These joints occur between the bodies of vertebrae and
they are united by fibrocartilage.
 The movements possible btwn these joints are limited
bending in any direction and some twisting of the
vertebral column.
 In the SACRAL region, the bodies of the vertebrae are
fused together such that bending and twisting is not
possible in this area.
JOINTS OF THE RIBS

 Attachment to the thoracic vertebrae is thru:

 1. pivot –like joint-i.e btwn the head of the rib
and a depression located btwn 2 adjacent
thoracic vertebrae.
 2. Arthrodial (sliding joint)- btwn an articular
surface located a short distance from the
head of the rib and a facet on the transverse
process of the vertebrae of the same series
(or number) as the rib.
JOINTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

 Attachment of the Scapula to the THORAX

 The Scapula is attached to the bony thorax by
means of muscles and ligaments.
 There is no proper bone to bone articulation in
this attachment.
 Therefore, there is no true joint btwn the Scapula
and the body.
JOINTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

 Joint btwn the Scapula and the Humerus

(Shoulder joint)
 This is the first moveable joint in the forelimb.
 In this joint, the head of the humerus fits into the
GLENOID cavity which is located on the articular
angle of the scapula.
 It is known as a ball and socket joint.
 It allows movement in all directions.
JOINTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

 Joint btwn the Humerus and the Radius and

Ulna (ELBOW JOINT)
 In this joint the condyles of the humerus are unite
with the proximal end of the radius and ulna.
 It is a true hinge joint, in which the elbow can be
flexed and extended in the sagittal plane.
JOINT OF THE CARPUS

 The carpus is made up of short bones which

are arranged in 2 rows.
 This means that the articulation of these
bones in the carpus forms a very complex
joint which consists of many smaller
arthrodial (sliding and gliding) joints btwn
adjacent carpal bones.
Joint between the Carpus &
Metacarpus & the Digits
 The joint btwn the carpal and metacarpal bones is an
ARTHROIDAL joint.
 The movements possible along this joint are sliding and
gliding.
 Just as in the carpal joints, these movements are
important in absorbing shock.
 The joints btwn the metacarpus and the digits and
those btwn bones making the digits are classed as
ginglymus (or hinges) joints.
 They allow flexion and extension of the foot which
occurs when the animal is walking.
JOINTS OF THE HINDLIMB
Joint btwn Axial skeleton and the Hip
Bone (Sacro-Iliac Joint)
 The sacral region of the axial skeleton is
firmly joined to the ILIUM of the Os Coxae.
 This joint forms the only bony connection
btwn the axial and the appendicular skeleton.
 Movement is of the joint btwn the sacrum
and ilium is not possible because it is held
tightly by short and strong ligaments
stretching from the ilium to the sacrum.
Joint btwn the Pelvic girdle and the
femur (Hip joint)
 The head of the femur fits into the
acetabulum of the os coxae to form an
enarthrodial (i.e ball and socket joint).
 Movement is possible in any direction.
Joint btwn Femur and Tibia (Stifle
joint)
 This joint is btwn the condyles on the distal
end of the femur and the proximal end of the
TIBIA.
 The movements of this joint are flexion and
extension .
 The joint is capable of absorbing shock since
it contains synovial fluid.
Joint of the tarsus (Hock joint)

 The arrangement and general structure of

the tarsal bones is similar to that of the carpal
bones of the forelimb.
Joint btwn the Tarsus, Metatarsus and
the Digits
 The joint found btwn the distal row of the
tarsal bones and the metatarsus is similar to
that occurring btwn the carpus and
metacarpus.