Chapter

Chapter66

Basic Motivation
Concepts

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
S T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S
E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N
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 After
After studying
studying this
this chapter,
OBJECTIVES
chapter,
you
you should
should be
be able
able to:
to:
1. Outline the motivation process.
2. Describe Maslow’s need hierarchy.
LEARNING

3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y.

4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.
5. List the characteristics that high achievers
prefer in a job.
6. Summarize the types of goals that increase
performance.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–2

 After
After studying
studying this
this chapter,
O B J E C T I V E S (cont’d)
chapter,
you
you should
should be
be able
able to:
to:
7. Explain the job characteristics model.
8. State the impact of underrewarding
employees.
9. Clarify key relationships in expectancy
theory.
LEARNING

10. Explain how the contemporary theories of

motivation complement each other.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–3

 Defining
Defining Motivation
Motivation

Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.
2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.
3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries

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 Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs Theory
Theory (Maslow)
(Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs
—physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization; as
each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant.

Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

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 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs

Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs. and self-actualization
needs.

Source: Motivation and Personality , 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970. E X H I B I T 6–1
Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
E X H I B I T 6–1

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–6

 Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY (Douglas
(Douglas McGregor)
McGregor)

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–7

 Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory (Frederick
(Frederick Herzberg)
Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction,
while extrinsic factors are associated with
dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors
Factors—such as company policy
and administration, supervision,
and salary—that, when adequate
in a job, placate workers. When
factors are adequate, people will
not be dissatisfied.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–8
 Contrasting
ContrastingViews
Viewsof
ofSatisfaction
Satisfactionand
andDissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 6–3
E X H I B I T 6–3

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–9

 ERG
ERG Theory
Theory (Clayton
(Clayton Alderfer)
Alderfer)
ERG Theory
There are three groups of core needs: existence,
relatedness, and growth.

Core
CoreNeeds
Needs Concepts:
Concepts:
Existence:
Existence:provision
provisionof More
basic
of Morethan
thanone
oneneedneedcan
can
basicmaterial
material be operative at the same
be operative at the same
requirements.
requirements. time.
time.
Relatedness:
Relatedness:desire
desirefor IfIfaahigher-level
relationships.
for higher-levelneed
need
relationships. cannot
cannotbe befulfilled,
fulfilled,the
the
Growth: desire
desiretotosatisfy
satisfyaalower-
Growth:desire
desirefor
for level need increases.
lower-
personal
personaldevelopment.
development. level need increases.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–10

 David
David McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to achieve The desire for friendly
in relation to a set of and close personal
standards, to strive to relationships.
succeed.

Need for Power nPow

The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise.
nAch nAff

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 Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with
feedback, lead to higher performance.

Factors influencing the goals–

performance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate self-
efficacy, task characteristics, and
national culture.

Self-Efficacy
The individual’s belief that he or
she is capable of performing a task.
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 Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Theory

The assumption that behavior is a function of its

consequences.

Concepts:
Concepts:
Behavior
Behaviorisisenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbebemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
by
providing
providing(controlling)
(controlling)consequences.
consequences.
Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendstotobe
berepeated.
repeated.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–13

 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory

Job Characteristics
Model Characteristics:
Characteristics:
Identifies five job 1.1. Skill
Skillvariety
variety
characteristics and their 2.2. Task
relationship to personal Taskidentity
identity
and work outcomes. 3.3. Task
Tasksignificance
significance
4.4. Autonomy
Autonomy
5.5. Feedback
Feedback

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–14

 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
 Job Characteristics Model
– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given,
directly affect three psychological states of employees:
• Knowledge of results
• Meaningfulness of work
• Personal feelings of responsibility for results

– Increases in these psychological states result in

increased motivation, performance, and job
satisfaction.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–15

 The
The Job
Job Characteristics
Characteristics Model
Model

Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by E X H I B I T 6–6
E X H I B I T 6–6
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–16
 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires
a variety of different activities.

Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of
a whole and identifiable piece of work.

Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives or work of other people.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–17
 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial
freedom and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–18

 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by a job results in the individual obtaining
direct and clear information about the effectiveness
of his or her performance.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–19

 Computing
Computing aa Motivating
Motivating Potential
Potential Score
Score

People
Peoplewho
whowork
workon
onjobs
jobswith
withhigh
highcore
coredimensions
dimensionsare
are
generally
generallymore
moremotivated,
motivated,satisfied,
satisfied,and
andproductive.
productive.
Job
Jobdimensions
dimensionsoperate
operatethrough
throughthe
thepsychological
psychologicalstates
statesinin
influencing
influencingpersonal
personaland
andwork
workoutcome
outcomevariables
variablesrather
rather
than
thaninfluencing
influencingthem
themdirectly.
directly.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–20

 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Social Information Processing (SIP) Model

The fact that people respond to their jobs as they
perceive them rather than to the objective jobs
themselves.

Concept:
Concept:
Employee
Employeeattitudes
attitudesand
andbehaviors
behaviorsare
are
responses
responsesto
tosocial
socialcues
cuesby
byothers.
others.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–21

 Social
Social Information
Information Processing
Processing Model
Model (SIP)
(SIP)

 Concepts of the SIP Model

– Employees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response
to the social cues provided by others (e.g., coworkers)
with whom they have contact.
– Employees’ perception of the characteristics of their
jobs is as important as the actual characteristics of
their jobs.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–22

 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory

Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.
Referent
Referent
Comparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–23
 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

E X H I B I T 6–7
E X H I B I T 6–7

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–24

 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Choices
Choicesfor
fordealing
dealingwith
withinequity:
inequity:
1.1. Change
Changeinputs
inputs(slack
(slackoff)
off)
2.2. Change
Changeoutcomes
outcomes(increase
(increaseoutput)
output)
3.3. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsof
ofself
self
4.4. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsofofothers
others
5.5. Choose
Chooseaadifferent
differentreferent
referentperson
person
6.6. Leave
Leavethe
thefield
field(quit
(quitthe
thejob)
job)

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–25

 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the
amount and allocation of
rewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of
the process to determine
the distribution of
rewards.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–26

 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the
act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

E X H I B I T 6–8
E X H I B I T 6–8

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–27

 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory Relationships
Relationships

 Effort–Performance Relationship
– The probability that exerting a given amount of effort
will lead to performance.
 Performance–Reward Relationship
– The belief that performing at a particular level will lead
to the attainment of a desired outcome.
 Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship
– The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an
individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of
potential rewards for the individual.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–28

 Performance
Performance Dimensions
Dimensions

Source: Adapted from M. Blumberg and C.D. Pringle, “The Missing Opportunity in
Organizational Research: Some Implications for a Theory of Work Performance,” E X H I B I T 6–9
E X H I B I T 6–9
Academy of Management Review, October 1982, p. 565.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–29
 Motivation theories can be classified broadly
into two different perspectives: Content and
Process theories. Content Theories deal with
“what” motivates people and it is concerned
with individual needs and goals. Maslow,
Alderfer, Herzberg and McClelland studied
motivation from a “content” perspective.
Process Theories deal with the “process” of
motivation and is concerned with “how”
motivation occurs. Vroom, Porter & Lawler,
Adams and Locke studied motivation from a
“process” perspective
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–30
Motivation
Motivation Theories
Theories

Content Theories Process Theories

 Maslow  Needs-Goal Theory 
 ERG  Vroom Expectancy
 Theory X and Theory Y Theory 
 Two Factor Theory  Equity Theory
 McClelland Theory

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–31