RESEARCH DESIGN

AND APPROACHS
Ms Sudharani Banappagoudar
 Introduction
• Research design and research approach are two terms that are frequently used
interchangeably; However research design is a broader plan to conduct a study, and
research approach is an important element of the research design, which governs.

• The research design spells out the basic strategies that the researcher adopts to develop
information that is accurate and interpretable.
• The research design incorporates some of the most important methodological decisions
that the researcher makes in conducting a research study.
• It provides an overview of various considerations in selecting a research design.
 Definition
• Research design is the blue print to conduct a research study,
which involves the description of research approach, study
setting, sampling size, sampling technique, tools and method of
data collection and analysis to answer the specific research
questions or for testing research hypothesis.
• It is an overall plan of the researcher for obtaining answers to
the research questions or for testing the research hypothesis
 Qualities of a good research design
• It should be properly structured to suit the research problem
• should be free from any kind of bias
• should enable a researcher to achieve the highest possible precision
• Should be able to establish trustworthy relationships between the variables
 Elements of Research Design
Qualitative

with/without
The Approach Quantitative

Or both

Elements Population,
Method of of sample and
data analysis research sampling
design technique

Tools & Time & place

methods of of data
data collection
collection
 Classification of research Approaches

• Quantitative research Approach

• Qualitative research Approach
• Quantitative research Approach: is a systematic and
objective process where numeric or numbers are used
to obtain information.
 Classification of Quantitative research Approach
• Experimental
• Non Experimental
Experimental Research Design: Experimental Research design is defined as
observation under controlled condition. It is description and analysis of which
will be or what can be made.

It occurs under careful condition. Experiment is the most scientific research

method.
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH

To provide scientific proof of etiology, risk factors may permit

modification or control of those disease.

To provide a method of measuring effectiveness and efficiency of health.

To provide services for prevention, control and treatment of disease and
improve the health of the population
 MAJOR STEPS IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Select a sample from population by random sampling.

2. By random assignment, subdivide the sample into two sub-samples.
3. Specific one sub-sample, the experimental group and other the control
group.
4. Before introducing the independent variable observe and record all
important characteristics of the two groups.
5. Introduce the independent variable into the experimental group but with
holds it from the control group.
5. Introduce the independent variable into the experimental group
but with holds it from the control group.
6. After introducing the in-dependable variable, observe the
dependent variable in both experimental and control group.
7. Compare the changes that occur in experimental group with those
that may have occurred in the control group.
8. Record the difference.
9. Compare these values with statistically computed values that judge
the significance of the difference, and indicate whether of not the
observed differences could have occurred by chance.
 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1. True or classical experimental design.

2. Quasi-experimental design.
3. Pre- experimental design
 TRUE OR CLASSICAL EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
CHARACTERISTICS
1.Manipulation
It is a process by which the researcher manipulates
the independent variables by administering an experimental treatment
to one group of the subjects, called experimental group &
observe the effects of this experimental treatment on the
dependent variables.
 2.Control
• It refers to the use of control group and controlling the effects of extraneous
variables on the dependent variable in which the researcher is interested.
• The subjects in the control and experimental group are similar in number
and characteristics, but the subject in the control group receive no
experimental treatment or any intervention at all. The experimental group
receives the planned treatment or intervention, and a comparison is made
with the control group to observe the effect of this treatment or intervention.
 3.Randomization

• Means that every subject has an equal chance of being

assigned to experimental or control group. Also known as
random assignment of subjects, which involves the
placement of study subjects on a random basis. Through
random assignment of subject under experimental or control
group, chances of systemic bias is eliminated.
 3things should be noted in random assignment

1. it takes place before the experiment begins

2. it is a process of assigning or distributing students to groups.
3. The use of random assignment allows the researcher to form groups
that,
- right at the beginning of study are equivalent
- is intended to eliminate the threat of additional, or extraneous
variables (aware or not aware by researchers), that affect the result
of study.
 Symbolic presentations
Some Symbols used are:
• R= Random assignment of the subject to groups
• O= Observation or measurement of dependent variable
• X= Experimental treatment or intervention
Subscript number appearing after X(X1,X2, X3…) indicates the
treatments such as first treatment, second treatment, third treatment, and
so on.
 Types of True Experimental Design
• TrueTrue Experimental Design
Experimental Design

Post test Crossover

only

Pre test
Post test
only Randomized
block
Solomon 4
groups Factorial
 Post test only control design

Exp. group Treatment Post test

Random
assignment

Control Post test

group
 Pretest- post- test- only design

Treatment Post test

Exp. group Pretest

Random
assignment

Control
Pretest Post test
group
 Solomon Four- group Design

Exp. Post
Pretest test
Group 1 Treatment

Random Control Pretest Post

assignment Group 1 test

Exp. Post
Group2 Treatment
test

Control
Post
Group2
test
 Factorial Design
• Involve two or more independent variables, called factor, in a single design.
• Extend the number of relationships that may be examined in an experimental
study.
• Allow to study the interaction of independent variables with 1 or more other
variables called (Moderator variables)
• It maybe a treatment variables or subject characteristics variables
• It can be posttest only or pretest-posttest control group (with or without random
assignment)
• a modification of the pretest-posttest control group
design
• it involves 1 treatment variable having 2 levels (X1 and X2)

• one moderator variable also having 2 levels (Y1 and Y2)

• 2 groups receive a treatment (X1)

• 2 groups weren’t (X2)

• both groups receiving a treatment where differ in Y, as well as not receiving a
treatment
• hence both variables or factors has 2 levels it is called
2 by 2 factorial design
 Diagram of Factorial Designs

• Treatment R O X1 Y1 O
• Control R O X2 Y1 O
• Treatment R O X1 Y2 O
• Control R O X2 Y2 O
 Randomized block design
• When there are a large number of experimental comparison groups, the randomized
block design is used to bring homogeneity among selected different groups. E. g., a
researcher wants to examine the effects of three different antihypertensive drugs on
patient with hypertension. To ensure the homogeneity among the subjects under
treatment, researcher randomly places the subjects in homogenous blocks like patients
with primary hypertension, D M with hypertension, renal patient with hypertension.
In this only the type of drug is manipulated & the type of patients with hypertension
are simply grouped in different blocks with similar characteristics to ensure
homogeneity.
 Crossover Design
In this, subjects are exposed to more than one treatment, where
subjects are randomly assigned to different orders of
treatments. Also known as “repeat measures design”.
• Advantages
• Most powerful design to establish causal relationship between independent and dependent
various.
• Variables are more easily controlled than in human studies.
• can yield a greater degree of purity.
• Can create conditions in a short period of time.

Disadvantages
• Most of the times, the results can not be replicated due to ethical problem.
• Not possible to impose control over extraneous variables when study conducted in natural
settings.
• Very difficult to gain cooperation from participants
 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCHDESIGN
Quasi Experimental Design is may be a quantitative research Design in which there is a ways
manipulation of independent variables and control measured is applied. Quasi means similar to or
resembling.

Quasi Experimental Design: There are several quasi experimental design, but two are more
important in nursing research. When randomization is not used to create group of subject the
researcher can not be confident that the group and comparison group are equivalent, because there
is no randomization, e.g. suppose we wish to study the effect of introducing the problem oriented
method of charting of nursing staff, the system is to be implemented in a six bedded hospital.
Therefore, we decide to use as a comparison, nurses in another hospital, that is similar, but that is
not instituting the problem method of charting. We decide to gather data on staff moral in both
hospitals, prior to implementing the new charting system.
 Types of Quasi experimental Design
• Two most frequently types are:
• Non Randomized control group design: also known as non equivalent
control group design. In this, experimental and control groups are selected
without randomization & dependent variables are observed in
experimental as well as control groups before the intervention. Later,
experimental group receives treatment and post test observation of
dependent variables is carried out to assess the effect of treatment on
experimental group.
 Time series Design
• Useful when the experimenter wants to measure the effect the treatment of
over a long period of time.
• The experimenter would continue to administer the treatment and measure
the effects.
• Generally it is a single- subject research, researcher carries out an
experiment in a small number of individuals, by alternating between
administering and then withdrawing the treatment to determine the
effectiveness of the intervention.
 Advantages

1. Practicality:- (Can use in practice).

2. Feasibility:- benefit for everybody.
3. Generalizability:- In general use.

Disadvantages:
There are several generally alternative explanations for observed result e.g. the case in which
we administer certain medications to a group of infants whose mothers are heroin addicts
and gets a weight gain and low weight infant and do the comparison non-addicted mothers.
 Pre experimental research
• Is considered very weak because the researcher has the very little control over
the experiment.
Types:
One shot case design
No random assignment of subjects to the experimental group and no control group
at all. A single experimental group is exposed to a treatment and observations
made after treatment.
One group pre test post test design
 One group pre test post test design

• Only the experimental group is selected as the study subject. Pretest observation is made before
implementation of the treatment, the treatment is administered and finally the post test observation of
dependent variables is carried out to assess the effect of treatment.
Advantages
• Very simple and convenient to conduct
• Most suitable design for beginners
Disadvantages
• A very weak design.
• Very little control over the research.
• Higher threat to internal validity and biasness.
 Non experimental Research Design
• In this , no experimental manipulation is made during the course of the research work. Almost all
the nursing research studies have the non experimental research design, as nursing deals with the
human being such as with the patients and people where true experimental
manipulation may not be possible with human behaviors. As the human nature lie at the core of
nursing, the main interest of nursing research studies is on the human features which are frequently
variable and which can, by no means, experimentally controlled or manipulated. Because the
subjects of a sample, even if divided into groups and even though the groups may appear similar,
may have there differences in personality traits, beliefs, mental, social and spiritual behaviors,
where absolutely accurate discrimination between control group, experimental group, comparison
group may not be possible at all. Further there may be several constraints and difficulties in terms
of patient’s inconveniences where experimental studies are not possible.
Classification of non experimental design
• Descriptive research design
• Co relational research design

• Survey research research design

• Evaluation research research design

• Methodological research design

 Descriptive research design

• Is designed to describe the characteristics of phenomena of researcher’s

interest as they exist. Descriptive research studies make observation,
description and documentation of various aspects of a situation or a
phenomenon which occurs in a natural setting and how frequently it
occurs. E.g., epidemics.
E.g., in this study, the researcher may like to describe the family background
of women, seeking medical termination of pregnancy such as what has
driven them for taking such an act.
 Types
• Univariant : Univariant descriptive design are undertaken to describe the
frequency of occurrence of a phenomenon rather than to study relationship
• -Exploratory: used to identify, explore & describe the existing phenomenon &
its related factors

• Comparative: it involves comparing two or more samples of study subjects on

one or more variables often at a single point of time. Used to compare two
distinct groups on the basis of knowledge, perceptions & attitudes.
 Co relational research design

Co relational research studies are those which are designed to

explain or describe relationships between two are more variables.
This type of research studies, allows the researcher more flexibility
in investigating natural and complex relationship amongst variables,
in this possible to collect a large amount of data
 Types of co relational Research Design
• Prospective : researcher relates the present to future. Prospective studies
start with a presumed cause and then go to presumed effect. These designs
are often longitudinal but may also be cross sectional. E.g., data collected
from pregnant women regarding any history of infection among women
during their current pregnancies, next observes fetal development &
pregnancy outcome and finally analyses the relationship of maternal
infection during pregnancy and fetal development and pregnancy
outcome.
 Conti…

• Retrospective : here the researcher studies

the current phenomenon by seeking
information from the past. In this the
researcher links the present phenomenon
with the past.
 Conti…
Advantages
• increased flexibility
• An efficient and effective method
• A potential for practical application in clinical settings
• A potential foundation for future
• A possible framework for investigating relationship between variables that
are not manipulable
 Conti…
Disadvantages
• Variables of interest are beyond the researcher’s control
• Researcher is unable to manipulate the variables of interest
• Generalizability is decreased
• Researcher is unable to determine a causal relationship between the
variables because of the lack of manipulation, control and randomization.
 Developmental Research design
• Examining the phenomenon in respect to the time

Types
• Cross- sectional design: is one in which the researcher collects data at particular
point of time. These studies are easier and more convenient to carry out.
• Longitudinal: is used to collect data over an extended time period. Its value is in
its ability to demonstrate changes over a period of time.
 Epidemiological research
• The investigation of the distribution &cause of diseases in a population is
called epidemiology. Epidemiological studies are generally conducted to
investigate causes of different diseases in either prospective approach
( cause to effect) or retrospective (effect to cause). However, in
epidemiology different terminology is used for prospective and
retrospective designs. Prospective studies are known as cohort studies and
retrospective studies are called case control studies.
 Cont…

• Cohort studies: in this design, a longitudinal approach is used to

investigate the occurrence of a disease in existing presumed cause. E. g., a
researcher longitudinally observes the smokers for development of lung
cancer.

• Case control Studies: in this design, causes of a disease are

investigated after the occurrence of a disease. E. E. g., a researcher
investigates the history of smoking in patients diagnosed with lung cancer.
 Survey research method
• Survey research method is designed to obtain information from the
population on various issues and aspects. such as about peoples personal
characteristics, personality traits, people’s behaviors, feelings, attitudes,
opinions, values, attitudes, likes, dislikes and so on. These informations
are collected by asking people questions through personal interviews or
telephonic interviews.
.
 Conti…
Advantages
• A great deal of information can be obtained from a large population in a fairly economical manner
• Survey research information can be accurate
Disadvantages
• Information obtained tend to be superficial
• The breadth rather than the depth of information is emphasized
• Requires a great deal of expertise
• Large scale surveys can be time consuming and costly
 Evaluation Research Method
• It is designed to assess or appraise the effectiveness of a practice or a program.
• These studies evaluate the function of such a program or a practice as these were
designed to perform in certain ways. These studies focus on collection of information on
how the programs or practice are functioning, whether they are meeting the objectives
effectively, with an aim to either modify, improve or alter certain programs & practices.
E g., the researcher may be interested in investigating the effectiveness of certain patient
care or nursing care practices. The researcher, after the evaluation study, may find that
the present nursing care practices or the existing nursing care measures are not yielding
to expected results. The practice need to be modified or to be improved upon.
 Methodological Research
• This type of research plan is designed to investigate the ways of obtaining
information in developing, validating and evaluating research tools, study
modules and procedure manuals which would serve as sound instruments
or items in many nursing care practices.
 Qualitative Research Approach

• It is often associated with non scientific or naturalistic method of inquiry and investigation. The
qualitative research approach attempts to inquire and explore the dynamic and holistic human
experiences, emphasizing the human complexity in a natural setting. It provides an in- depth
information which has the potentials to reflect multiple dimensions of various phenomena.
Information is gathered directly from the people and is presented in a narrative descriptive or
subjective form.
Advantages
It is flexible
Disadvantages
• This type is unstructured in nature.
 Characteristics
• Involves a merging together of various data collection strategies.
• Flexible and elastic
• Holistic, striving for an understanding of the whole.
• Requires researcher to become intensively involved.
• Requires researcher to become the research instrument.
• Requires ongoing analysis of the data to formulate subsequent strategies and
to determine when field work is done.
 Classification
• Ethnographic Research approach
• Phenomenological
• Ground theory
• Historical
• Case study Research
 Ethnographic Research design

• In this, the data is collected on cultural behavior of a group of people. It includes cognitive as well as
materialistic behavior. It attempts to size the members beliefs, values, activities and knowledge of the
people under study in depth. This information is collected through an intensive face to face
interactions.
• The researcher in this type, attempts to investigate cultural behavior such as how the culture is carried
on, communicated and transmitted.
• It aims at gathering information on 3 main aspects, such as:
• Cultural behavior
• Cultural aspect
• Cultural speech
 Conti…
The factual information is collected by various methods such as
observations, interviews and other evidences such as dairies, photographs
etc.
In ethnographic research, the researcher needs to build up a close
relationship with the member of a particular group. Then the researcher
needs to participate in the cultural activities and events and also needs to
spend with them substantial amount of time- then only
 Conti…
• An ethnographic research study is conducted to acquire factual
information of the life style practices with regard to food,
hygiene, health, education, child birth etc. of an indigenous
cultural group dwellings.
 Phenomenology
• An approach to discover the meaning of people’s life experiences.
• Phenomenological inquiry typically involves four basic steps:
• Bracketing :- process of identifying and holding preconceived beliefs & opinion one may
have about the phenomenon under investigation.
• Intuiting: when the researcher remains open to the meanings attributed to the phenomenon
by those who have experienced it.
• Analysis phase: categorizing & making sense of the essential meanings of the phenomenon.
• Descriptive phase: when the researcher comes to understand and define the phenomenon.
 Ground theory
• An approach to the study of social processes and social structures. It is
conducting in a naturalistic setting. Data collected is done through a series
of intent observation, in depth interviews etc.
• The research method has contributed to the formulation and development
of middle range nursing theories.
 Phases of Grounded Theory

Data collection
Note Taking

Coding

Memoing

Sorting

Writing
 Historical Approach

• Systematic collection of facts and trends or events of the recent past and
also of the distant past, which are long lost but which are very important
for the mankind. This approach may illuminate new facts which may lead
to new discoveries of the past happenings.
• information can also be obtained from the written records such as
periodicals, biographies, personal letters, legal documents, encyclopedias,
photo albums, newspapers etc.
 Sources
• Obtained from :
• Primary sources
• Secondary sources
Primary sources: provides first hand information such as original documents
which represent most natural and direct link. These are unbiased sources.
Secondary sources: provide second hand, third hand or even fourth hand data,
such as narration of historical events. Biased by the writer’s opinions which
obscure the accuracy of the data.
 Steps of conducting historical Research
• Define and formulate a well defined and feasible problem
• Formulate hypothesis or specific objectives
• Outline the data collection methods, tools and sources
• Collect data
• Data evaluation
• Interpret the findings
• Analyze the results
• Documentation , communication and findings for present status s
 Case study Approach
• It is in depth, intensive investigation of individual, a family, group, a community,
institution or other social unit. It provide both quantitative and qualitative data.
• It can be explanatory, descriptive as well as exploratory in nature. It provides
evidence based data in detail.
• The focus is typically on determining the dynamics of why the subject of the
investigation thinks, behaves, or develops in a particular manner rather than what his
or her status, progress, actions, or thoughts are. It clarifies concepts and variables.
Types of quantitative Research design
Broad categories Types of Research design Main features
I. Experimental Research design 1. True Experimental Manipulation of independent variable , in the
Design presence of control group, randomization.
- Post test only control design
- Pretest –posttest control group design
- Solomon four group design
- Factorial design
- Randomized block design
- Crossover design

2.Quasi experimental design Manipulation of independent variable , but

-Nonrandomized control group design absence of either randomization or control
-Time series design group

II. Non Experimental Research
design
3. pre- experimental d
design
-one shot case design
-one group pretest- posttest
design
Descriptive design
-univariate descriptive design
-exploratory descriptive design
-comparative descriptive design
Manipulation of independent variable ,
but limited control over extraneous
variables, no randomization and
control group
Accurate description of characteristics of
individual situation, or group and the
frequency with which a certain
phenomenon occurs in natural setting
without imposing any control or
manipulation
-Univariate descriptive: to describe the
frequency of occurrence of a
phenomenon rather than to study
relationship
-Exploratory: investigating the
phenomenon & its related factors
Comparative: comparing occurrences of
a phenomenon in two or more groups
2. Co relational/ ex post facto design Examining the relationship between
-prospective two or more variables in a natural
-retrospective setting without manipulation or
control
Prospective: examining relationship
from cause to effect
Retrospective: examining
relationship from effect to cause

3. Developmental Research design Examining the phenomenon in respect

-Cross sectional to the time
- longitudinal Cross sectional: Examining the
phenomenon only at one point in the
time
Longitudinal: Examining the
phenomenon at more than one point in
time

III. Other additional research
designs
4.Epidemiological design The investigation of the
-Case control studies distribution &cause of diseases in
- cohort studies a population is known as
epidemiology
5. Survey research design These are investigation in which
self reported data are collected
from sample with the purpose of
describing population on some
variables of interest
1. Methodological studies Research conducted to develop, test
and evaluate the research
instruments & methods
Quantitative combining &
integrating the findings of the
2. Meta analysis multiple research studies on a
particular topic
3. Secondary data analysis In this the data collected in one
research is reanalyzed by another
researcher, usually to test new
hypotheses
4. Outcome research It involves the evaluation of care
practices & systems in place. Used
in nursing to develop evidence
based practice and improve nursing
actions
5. Evaluation studies It involves the judgment about
success of a programmes, practices,
procedures & policies

Involves the study of complex

human organizations & service to
6. Operational research develop new knowledge about
institutions, programmes, facilities
& personnel to improve working
efficiency of an organization.
Types of qualitative Research design

Phenomenological research It is examines human experiences through the descriptions provided

by people involved

Ethnographic research It involves the information collected from certain cultural groups, by
living with people of those groups & from their key informants, who
are believed to be most knowledgeable about the selected culture .

Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a

Grounded theory participant observer
 Research on a phenomenon by studying in depth a
Case study single case example. The case can be an individual
person, an event, a group, or an institution

Historical research Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data

related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses
concerning causes , effects, or trends of these events that
may help to explain present events and anticipate future
events

Action Research It seeks action to improve practices and study the effect
of the action that was taken