Temperature

Measurement

Rev. # – Mmm YYYY

Table of Contents

 Course Learning Objectives

 Introduction
 Thermistors
 Definitions
 Bimetallic Thermometer
 Thermocouples
 Filled Thermal Systems
 Duplex Thermocouples
 Infrared Thermometry
 Multi Point Temperature Elements
 Emissivity
 Shielding
 Spectral Effects
 Resistance Temperature Detectors
 Review
( RTD’s)
 Thermowells
 Transmitters

2
Course/Learning Objectives

3
INTRODUCTION

4
Temperature - Basics

 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles that

make up body .

 The greater the kinetic energy of the particles is, the higher the
temperature of the body will be.

 Temperature is the ability of one body to transfer thermal energy to

another body.

 If two bodies are in equilibrium and no thermal energy is exchanged , the

bodies are at the same temperature .Molecular motion creates heat
known as thermal energy.

 Thermal movement from hot to cold is called thermodynamics.

 Absolute zero ( no molecular motion ) means no heat is reproduced .

5
Types of Temperature Devices

 Temperature devices are specified according to their construction and

are classified as below:

• Thermocouple (T/C)
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Thermistor
• Bi Metallic Thermometer
• Filled System Thermometer
• Infrared Thermometry.

6
Temperature Measurement

 Temperature measuring devices are divided into three general

categories :

• Indicators
• Sensors/transducers, Switches
• Transmitters
• The design and construction of these devices is based on how different
materials react when subjected to heat and what type measurement is
required i.e. Indication only , point measurement only, analog output etc.

7
Various Units of Temperature Measurement

 °C – degrees Celsius (or Centigrade)

 °F – degrees Fahrenheit
 K – Kelvin
 R – Rankine

 Relationship between different units

• °C = (°F - 32)/1.8
• °F = 1.8 x °C + 32
• K = °C + 273.15
• R = °F + 459.67

 Conversion tables or software can be utilized to facilitate

with converting between these units.

8
DEFENITIONS

9
Definitions

 Ranges:
• The range of a temperature instrument is defined by the minimum and
maximum temperature that it can indicate, record, measure or transmit. The
range should be selected such that the normal operating temperature is
approximately 50 to 70 % of the full scale with the maximum operating
temperature close to but not exceeding the upper range of the scale.

 Span:
• The span is the difference between the maximum and the minimum values of
the calibrated range.
• The minimum span is the smallest range that the manufacturer can accurately
calibrate within the instruments element range. Clearly narrow spans allow
better readability.

10
Definitions

 Turndown:
• Ratio of maximum measureable parameter to minimum measurable
parameter.

 Immersion Length:
• The immersion length of a Thermo well is the distance between the free
end/tip of the Thermo well and the point of immersion in the medium that is
being measured. The standard symbol for the immersion length of a Thermo
well is “R”.

 Insertion Length:
• The insertion length of a Thermo well is the distance between the free end/tip
of a Thermo well and (but not including) the external threads of other means
of attachment to a vessel. The standard symbol for the insertion length of a
Thermo well is “U”.

11
THERMOCOUPLES

12
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 In 1821 a German physicist named Seebeck discovered the

thermoelectric effect which forms the basis of modern thermocouple
technology. He observed that an electric current flows in a closed circuit
of two dissimilar metals if their two junctions are at different
temperatures.

 The thermoelectric voltage produced depends on the metals used and

on the temperature relationship between the junctions.

 If the same temperature exists at the two junctions, the voltage produced
at each junction cancel each other out and no current flows in the circuit.

13
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 With different temperatures at each junction, different voltages are

produced and current flows in the circuit.

 A thermocouple can therefore only measure temperature differences

between the two junctions, a fact which dictates how a practical
thermocouple
100ºC can be utilized.

Constantan (CuNi)

Thermocouple Circuit

14
Thermocouples (TC’s)

Iron (Fe)
Copper (Cu)
 Thermocouple Measuring Circuit:
100ºC 20ºC 0 10
mV
Hot Junction: Constantan (CuNi)
Copper (Cu)

In Process

Cold Junction:
Needs to be held constant to give a
fixed reference. ( early methods
held cold junction at 0ºC using ice
or refrigeration unit).

15
Thermocouples (TC’s)

Sheath (normally stainless steel)

 Thermocouple Construction

• Normally element is in a thermowell

Arc Welded Junction Conductors • Commonly element is 1/4” outside
(some are earthed at tip For insulated by Diameter
improved response time) Magnesium Oxide
Powder • Sheath material, normally Stainless
steel but can be special material such
as Inconel, Incoloy, Hastelloy etc.
• Duplex thermocouples have 2 elements
inside one sheath.

16
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 Thermocouple Tip Types:

Ungrounded – For Grounded – For use in Exposed – For use in

use in corrosive and corrosive and dry, non-corrosive, non-
pressurized apps. pressurized apps. pressurized apps.
Slow response time. Quicker response time Quickest response time
Offers electrical than ungrounded due to of all three.
isolation. improved heat transfer.

17
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 Typical installation details for washer type T/C on pipe.

18
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 Installation Details for Washer Type T/C on Pipe with Transmitter

19
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 Thermocouple- Grounding
• Thermocouple circuits can be grounded or ungrounded (floating or insulated).
Generally grounded thermocouple circuits are recommended for personnel
safety, to reduce the effects of electrical noise and provide good thermal
response characteristics.

• Ungrounded thermocouples should be considered for applications where

there is a likelihood of equipment damage due to ground faults or lightening
strikes particularly in Tank Farm areas.

• Thermocouple grounding should be done to the low- or negative-potential

side of the circuit, and should be done at the source rather than at the
secondary instrument in order to achieve maximum rejection of common-
mode noise.

20
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 Thermocouple- Grounding
• In accordance with the practice that any electrical device or circuit shall be
grounded at only one point in order to avoid a ground current in the circuit,
the grounding of each thermocouple circuit shall be done in one of the
following ways:

− Intentionally grounded
− Intentionally ungrounded
− Unintentionally grounded intermittently, because of bad contact or no contact of the
measuring junction with a well or because of formation of a high-resistance chemical
film at the measuring junction.

• The various combinations of thermocouple type - grounded,

intermittently/unintentionally grounded, or ungrounded; secondary instrument
type - isolated input/output or not and of output grounding are indicated in in
next two slides.

21
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 Grounding of Thermocouple System:

22
Thermocouples (TC’s)

 Grounding of Thermocouple System:

23
DUPLEX THERMOCOUPLES

24
Duplex Thermocouples
 Duplex-thermocouples are similar to ordinary single thermocouples
except that the measuring junction has two pairs of thermocouple wires,
e.g., two Chromel and two Alumel wires, joined together and the wires
are brought out in two separate circuits to provide two individual
measurements. The two temperature readings should then be identical,
assuming that both circuits are otherwise similar. This may be useful for
checking one instrument against the other, especially by using a test
voltmeter locally to determine whether a remote reading is inaccurate
because of the instrument or because of circuit problems.

 A duplex thermocouple requires only one well assembly, thus lowering

cost, but has less reliability than two single thermocouples because a
failure of the measuring junction or a ground or short circuit of one of the
two thermocouple circuits may incapacitate both circuits. Furthermore, if
one pair of a duplex thermocouple is used for checking, then there is a
risk of shorting or grounding the other pair.

25
MULTI POINT TEMPERATURE ELEMENTS

26
Multi Point Temperature Elements
 Multipoint temperature elements (RTDs or Thermocouples) are used for
tank gauging system & process reactors. The purpose of these elements
is to measure the temperature at different location or different levels.
 In the tank gauging system, the requirement is to measure fluid
temperature at different level, which can be obtained by installing
multipoint temperature elements assembly, which consist of number of
elements of different length in one Thermo well. This Thermo well is
prefabricated and installed in the tank by tank supplier. The numbers of
temperature elements (i.e. 4, 8,10,12,16 etc.) shall depend upon tank
height & process requirement.
 In case of process reactors, a Thermo well made from pipe is used to
install 3 or 4 temperature element of different length (to measure
temperature at different location on reactor diameter) to measure
temperature of chemical bed at specific location.

27
Multi Point Temperature Elements

 Tank Gauging system:

28
Multi Point Temperature Elements

 Process reactors:

 In some reactors, requirement is to measure temperature of chemical

bed at different location and different levels. In this case,
thermocouple/coupling assembly of required elements (8, 10,12,14,16
etc.) is inserted/installed on reactor by clamping the elements inside
reactor. Care shall be taken while deciding the insertion length of
element. The length also depends upon routing of these elements in
reactor.

29
SHIELDING

30
Shielding
 Electrostatic fields, Magnetic fields and Common mode interference are
the source of electrical noise on thermocouple extension wires.

 Electrostatic fields originate from voltage sources that capacitively

coupled to the thermocouple extension wire. Varying electrostatic fields,
usually originating from AC conductors, produce a capacitive current
flowing through the coupling path to the signal conductors.

 The best way to mitigate the interference from such electrostatic fields is
to cover the thermocouple wires with a grounded metal shield. The
capacitive current flow will flow via the shield to ground. The purpose of
the shield is to remain at or near ground potential and thereby couple no
signal to the signal wires contained within the shield, since there is no
difference in voltage. Note that a shield that is not grounded provides no
protection.

31
Shielding
 A varying magnetic field (such as the one produced by AC current in a
power cable) may cause interference to thermocouple signals by
generating small currents in the signal wire by induction. The magnitude
of the induced current is a function of the field strength and the
dimensions of the conductive loop into which the current is being
induced. Twisted conductors are effective at reducing the induced
currents by alternating the polarity of the induced current with each half
twist to cancel out most of the induction. Note this effect occurs whether
the thermocouple wire is shielded or not.
 Common mode interference generates noise that is identical in both
conductors of a twisted pair with respect to ground.
 In general, thermocouple wires should be twisted and shields should be
grounded, as shown in Figures earlier.
 However, the shielding recommendation given by the manufacturer of
the DCS (or other secondary instrumentation) should prevail.

32
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

33
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 The most common material is Platinum.

 It’s resistance is 100Ω at 0°Celsius.
• Hence the term “PT100”

 It’s resistance is 138.5Ω at 100°Celsius.

• Hence the Fundamental Interval of 38.5Ω
• Or 0.385Ω per 1°Celsius Rise in Temperature.

 There are other materials available for more unusual temperature ranges
such as Germanium (e.g.10 to 100 °Kelvin).

 The most commonly used temperature sensing metals used in

resistance thermometers are: copper, nickel, and platinum.

34
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Platinum provides the widest temperature range.

 Platinum is the most commonly used sensing metal and are called
Platinum Resistance Thermometers.

 The 100-ohm platinum RTDs should have a coefficient of exactly

0.00385 ohms/ohm-°C .

 This means that the resistance of the platinum element of the RTD is
100 ohms at 0°C/32°F and the platinum has a temperature coefficient of
resistance (alpha) of 0.00385 ohms/ohms-°C.

35
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 The alpha = 0.00385 ohms/ohms - °C platinum material is generally
used for industrial grade resistance thermometers.

 RTDs are available with single, double, or triple windings, each

electrically separated.

 Use of more than one winding enables two independent measuring

circuits to measure the same temperature.

 However, the additional mass introduced to the sensor by adding

windings increases both the response time and the conduction error.

 Using separate sensors provides mechanical independence of the

sensors for maintenance.

36
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

 RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) operate under the principle

that the electrical resistance of certain metals increases and decreases
in a repeatable and predictable manner with a temperature change.

37
RTD Elements

 Thin Film Element

• Metallic ink is deposited onto a ceramic substrate. Lasers then etch the ink to
provide a resistance path. The entire assembly is encapsulated in ceramic to
support and protect.

 Wire Wound Element

• Precise lengths of wire are wrapped around a ceramic mandrel, then inserted
inside a ceramic shell which acts to support and protect the wire windings.

38
RTD Elements

 Inner Coil Element

• Wires are coiled then slid into the holes of a ceramic insulator. Some
manufacturers backfill the bores with ceramic powder after the coils are
inserted. This keeps the coils from shorting against each other.

39
RTD Lead Wire Configuration

 2-wire: Should only be used with very short runs of leadwire. No

compensation for leadwire resistance.

 3-wire: Most commonly used for industrial applications. Leadwire

compensation.

 4-wire: Laboratory use historically, moving more into industrial

applications. Full compensation for leadwire resistance

40
RTD Wiring Arrangement

41
RTD Wiring Arrangement

 Wheatstone Bridge
• The most common method for measuring the resistance of an RTD is to use
a Wheatstone bridge circuit. In a Wheatstone bridge, electrical excitation
current is passed through the bridge, and the bridge output current is an
indication of the RTD resistance.

AMMETER

RTD
42
THERMOWELLS

43
Thermowells

 Thermo wells are used to protect temperature sensing elements such as

thermocouples, RTD's, bimetallic thermometers and filled system bulbs
from breaking if they are installed in a tank, vessel, or pipe.

 Thermo wells also allow a temperature measuring element such as a

thermocouple, RTD or bulb to be removed for servicing without the
requirement of plant shutdown.

 Sometimes "Protection Tubes" instead of Thermo wells are used to

protect thermocouples. These protection tubes are usually fabricated of
ceramic materials and they are installed in high temperature flue gas and
duct applications. Protection tubes are also available made of Inconel
and with their ends open in order to improve speed of response and heat
transfer .

44
Thermowells
 Thermo wells are used for almost all applications except for some
specific applications (i.e. for very-low-pressure air systems, for
ventilating systems, bearing temperature measurement, lube oil drain in
compressor etc.) where faster response required or space limitation such
as casing drain in compressor.

 Temperature elements can be installed without Thermo wells in following

applications or conditions exist,
• The process fluid is not corrosive or otherwise hazardous.
• The process is not under significant pressure.
• Air-in leakage is permissible.
• The primary element has the necessary static and dynamic mechanical
strength for the application.
• Either a failure of the element may be tolerated until the process can
conveniently be shut down, or operation can continue without the use of the
element.
• There is no personnel hazard if the thermocouple is inadvertently removed.

45
Thermowells

 In case if test Thermo wells are required, then Thermo wells with suitable
plugs shall be provided. Design of all the Thermo wells should be same
for all elements (i.e. for bimetallic gauges, RTDs or thermocouples) so
that interchangeability can be obtained.

 Factors to be reviewed while choosing Thermo wells are resistance to

corrosion, flow induced vibrations, erosion, ease of installation, preferred
installation point of Thermo well, insertion length, material, velocity
considerations, lagging extension etc.

46
Thermowell Assembly

47
Thermowells

 Flanged

 Van Stone

48
Thermowells

 Threaded

 Weld-In

49
Thermowells- Accessories

 Plug

 Plug with Chain

50
Thermowells

51
Thermowell Installation

 Pipe Flanged Thermo Well Installation Requirement :

52
Thermowell Installation

 Perpendicular Pipe Installation:

 Elbow Installation:

53
Wake Frequency

 Thermo wells must be carefully selected for processes where significant

velocity is present.
 By penetrating the process flow, the thermo well is subject to the stress
and friction of the flow. This may set up a natural vibration that may
result in the shearing off of the thermo well into the process. This is
called the “Wake Frequency”.
 ASME PTC 19-3 – Thermo wells
• This Standard establishes a mechanical design standard for reliable service
of thermo wells in a broad range of applications. This includes an evaluation
of the forces caused by external pressure, and the static and dynamic forces
resulting from fluid impingement.

54
Wake Frequency Calculation

• Vortices
• Resonance
• Condition

• fWake
• Side
• Wake View
• fWake = fNatural
• Frequency • fNatural
• (fWake)

• Thermowell Calculations
1) Ensure that: • fWake
• fNatural < 0.8
• •

55
Other TW Failure Modes

• Velocity
• Density
• Diameter• FDrag • FDrag • Flow
 Process-Induced
• Area Bending Stress:

• Length

56
Thermo well Insertion Modification

SHORTENED
TYPICAL THERMOWELL STEPPED THERMOWELL
THERMOWELL
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION

57
TRANSMITTERS

58
Transmitters

 Signal Conditioner
 Low level inputs

• mV from thermocouples
•  from RTD’s

 High level outputs

• 4-20mA current
• Digital (i.e. Fieldbus)

59
THERMISTORS

60
Thermistors- Principle

 Thermistors are temperature sensing devices that are similar to

RTD’s in that their resistance changes as temperature changes.

 The major difference is that for most thermistors the resistance

decreases as temperature increases.

 Thermistors are an inexpensive alternative to RTD’s when

temperature ranges are below 150C. Thermistors can be used from
temperatures of 80C to 300C.

 Most Thermistors have base resistances, which are much higher than
RTD’s.

 One of the greatest advantages of using a thermistor sensor is the

large change in resistance to a relatively small change in
temperature. This makes them very sensitive to small changes ion
temperature.
61
Thermistors

 Manufactured from oxides of nickel, manganese, iron, cobalt,

magnesium, titanium and other metals.

 They are epoxy or glass encapsulated or bare bead , many of the

standardized types are color coded.

 Typically used over a small temperature range ( compared to other

temperature sensors) because of their non linear characteristics.

62
Thermistor Non-Linearity

63
BIMETALIC THERMOMETERS

64
Bimetallic Thermometers- Principle

 The principle of operation of a bimetallic thermometer is based upon

physical or metallurgical phenomena as follows:
 Metals expand and/or contract (undergo a volumetric change) as a
function of temperature.
 Different metals have different coefficients of thermal expansion.
 Strips of two different metals are bonded together to form a spiral or a
twisted helix and the combined strip is anchored at one end. When
the temperature changes the free end of the strip will move due to the
different coefficients of expansion of the two metals.
 This movement is directly proportional to the temperature change,
and a pointer attached to the free end of the bimetallic strip will
indicate temperature.

65
Bimetallic Thermometers

 Based on principle that different metals expand at different rates as

they warm up .
 By bonding two different metals together , one can make a simple
electric controller that can withstand fairly high temperatures.
 This sort of temperature element is found in many mechanical
temperature switches as well as indicators .
 Strips of metals with different expansion coefficients are boded
together at the same temperature.
 When temperature increases the assembly bends.
 When this happens , the metal strip with the larger temperature
coefficient of expansion expands more than the other strip.
 The angular position versus temperature relation is established by
calibration so that the device can be used as thermometer..

66
Bimetallic Thermometers

 Bimetallic thermometers are generally available with 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6-

inch concentric dials, preferably of the non-parallax type (i.e. not
visually misaligned or displaced), with external zero adjustment, and
1/2-inch mounting thread. The stem should be of Stainless Steel
SS316), having a 1/4-inch diameter, and of a customized length to
suit process requirements. The dial orientation may be bottom or
back, known as "straight" or "angle", respectively.

 However, an all angle adjustable swivel connection is preferred in

order to enable the dial to be read from the most convenient location
& is most commonly used in Petrofac EPC projects.

 Bimetallic thermometers are not recommended for continued use

above 426°C.

67
Bimetallic Thermometers

 Bimetallic thermometers are generally available with 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6-

inch concentric dials, preferably of the non-parallax type (i.e. not
visually misaligned or displaced), with external zero adjustment, and
1/2-inch mounting thread. The stem should be of Stainless Steel
SS316), having a 1/4-inch diameter, and of a customized length to
suit process requirements. The dial orientation may be bottom or
back, known as "straight" or "angle", respectively.

 However, an all angle adjustable swivel connection is preferred in

order to enable the dial to be read from the most convenient location
& is most commonly used in Petrofac EPC projects.

 Bimetallic thermometers are not recommended for continued use

above 426°C.

68
Bimetallic Thermometers

Basic example:
Two metal strips expand at different
rates as the temperature changes.

 A bimetallic thermometer consists of an indicating or recording

A pointerand
device, a sensing element is attached
meanstoof
theconnecting the two.
rotating coil which indicates
the temperature on the dial.

Bimetal Coil
Coil rotation is caused by the
difference in thermal
expansions of the two metals.

69
FILLED THERMAL SYSTEM

70
Filled Thermal System-Principle

 Filled-system temperature measurement methods depend upon three

well-known physical phenomena:

• A liquid will expand or contract in proportion to its temperature and in

accordance to the liquid's coefficient of thermal/volumetric expansion.

• An enclosed liquid will create a definite vapor pressure in proportion to its

temperature if the liquid only partially occupies the enclosed space.

• The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature in accordance

with the basic principle of the universal/perfect gas law: PV = nRT where P =
absolute pressure, V= volume, T = absolute temperature, R = universal gas
constant and n = number of gas particles (moles).

71
Filled Thermal System-Principle

 Accordingly, when liquid is heated its volume or pressure will change

in proportion to the applied temperature .

 Closed system , contains a gas or a volatile liquid and relies on

pressure measurements to provide temperature indications.

 When temperature changes , fluid either expands or contracts , which

causes the bourdon tube to move , thereby moving the position of the
needle on the scale.

72
Filled Thermal System-Principle

 All filled-system temperature measurement instruments consists of a

bulb, connecting tubing known as "capillary," and a pressure sensing
element, usually a bourdon tube. All commercially available filled
system thermometers have been classified by ASME B40.200 (ASME
B40.4). The standard classifies filled-system thermometers by the
type of fill fluid used (liquid, vapor, gas) and further subdivided by the
type of temperature compensation.

 The different types of filled systems are identified by "Class

Numbers", ranging from 1 through 5, as per ASME B40.200.

73
Filled Thermal System-Principle

 The bulb volume varies over a range of 100 to 1 depending on the fill
fluid, the temperature span, and the capillary length.

 Long bulbs give an average temperature and are sometimes used in

stretched-out form for gas ducts.

 Different bulb materials are available. However when used with a

Thermo well, standard material such as copper, bronze, or stainless
steel can be used.

 In case atmospheric corrosion, Stainless steel is preferred.

 If a well is not used (not recommended), the bulb must suitable for
process fluid.

74
Filled Thermal System-Principle

 Capillary tubing is small-diameter tubing, usually of stainless steel.

Armor should always be specified not to provide only mechanical
strength but also distinguish with other tubing. Armor material shall be
stainless steel. However in a corrosive atmosphere, the armor should
be plastic coated. The length of capillary shall be carefully selected
and specified so that instrument can be installed as per requirement,
since it cannot be stretched or spliced.

 Of the many mounting styles available for installing a bulb, the one
generally recommended has a bulb with an adjustable union and
bendable extension. The bendable extension is usually of smaller
diameter than the bulb, thus reducing conduction error.

 The extension with adjustable union permits sliding the bulb against
the bottom of its well to make solid contact and give improved thermal
performance.
75
Filled Thermal System-Principle

 Since the thermal sensing fluid extends from the bulb to the pressure
element, it is affected by the temperatures existing everywhere in the
system - bulb, capillary, and pressure element.

 The temperature sensitivity of the fluid in the bulb is the essence of

the measuring system; in other parts of the system, the sensitivity is a
characteristic that may or may not cause significant error.

 Vapor-pressure systems, Class 2, are not subject to errors from this

cause because the system pressure depends only on the
temperature of the liquid/vapor interface, which is in the bulb; the
volume of the bulb chamber is temperature-sensitive but to a
negligible extent.

76
Filled Thermal System-Principle

 External pressure may cause measuring errors because the pressure

element measures the gauge pressure of the filling fluid. Barometric
pressure change has negligible effect on the liquid-filled systems,
Classes 1 and 5, which are at relatively high internal pressure.

 Vapor and gas systems, Classes 2, 3 and 4, are affected by

barometric pressure change but the resulting error usually does not
exceed 0.4 percent of span.

 ASME B40.200 Provides detailed design, application and uses.

77
Filled Thermal System

78
Filled Thermal System-Temperature
Compensation

 For Class 1, 3, and 5 systems, errors of varying extent can be caused

by ambient temperature. The need for compensation is a function
of ratio of bulb volume to total system volume, length of capillary,
ambient temperature, measuring range, and need for accuracy.

 Case compensation corrects only for variations of case temperature.

Full compensation corrects for variations of the temperature of the
capillary and case.

 Case compensation is usually achieved by installing a bimetallic

strip into the instrument case and attaching it to the pressure
sensing element. Full compensation is accomplished by installing an
auxiliary capillary without bulb parallel to the primary /main
capillary and connecting it to the measuring mechanism.

79
Filled Thermal System-Temperature
Compensation

 The decisions as to whether to specify compensation and which type to

use may be handled in either of the following ways:

• The preferred and most reliable way is to order Class 1 or 3 instruments with
full compensation, i.e., as Classes 1A or 3A. Class 2 instruments do not
require compensation.
• For economy: In addition to the usual information included in an instrument
specification, state (1) the ambient temperature ranges for the capillary and
the case, and (2) the required accuracy. The Manufacturer can then select
the proper compensation, if any is required.

80
INFRARED THERMOMETRY

81
Infrared Thermometry- Principle

 These devices measure the amount of radiation emitted by a

surface.

 Electromagnetic energy radiates from all matter regardless of its

temperature .

 In many process situations, the energy is in the infrared region.

 The intensity of an object’s emitted IR energy increases in proportion

to its temperature and measured as the targets emissivity , that
indicates an objects temperature.

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Benefits of Infrared Thermometry

 Can be used for:

• Moving objects
− Non-contact applications where sensors would affect results or be difficult to insert
or conditions are hazardous
− Large distances
− Very high temperatures

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EMISSIVITY

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Emissivity

 To back out temperature, surface emissivity must be known.

 You can look up emissivities, but it’s not easy to get an accurate number,
esp. if surface condition is uncertain (for example, degree of oxidation).

 Highly reflective surfaces introduce a lot of error.

 Narrow-band spectral filtering results in a more accurate emissivity

value.

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Ways to Determine Emissivity

 Measure the temperature with a thermocouple and an infrared

thermometer. Back out the emissivity. This method works well if
emissivity doesn’t change much with temperature or you’re not dealing
with a large temperature range.
 For temperatures below 500°F, place an object covered with masking
tape (which has ɛ=0.95) in the same atmosphere. Both objects will be at
the same temperature. Back out the unknown emissivity of the surface.
 Drill a long hole in the object. The hole acts like a blackbody with ɛ=1.0.
Measure the temperature of the hole, and find the surface emissivity that
gives the same temperature.
 Coat all or part of the surface with dull black paint which has ɛ=1.0.
 For a standard material with known surface condition, look up ɛ.

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SPECTRAL EFFECTS

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Spectral Effects

 Use a filter to eliminate longer-wavelength atmospheric radiation

(since your surface will often have a much higher temperature than the
atmosphere).

 If you know the range of temperatures that you’ll be measuring, you

can filter out both smaller and larger wavelength radiation. Filtering out
small wavelengths eliminates the effects of flames or other hot spots.

 If you’re measuring through glass-type surfaces, make sure that the

glass is transparent for the wavelengths you care about. Otherwise the
temperature you read will be a sort of average of your desired surface
and glass temperatures.

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Review

Summary of topics covered.

89
QUESTIONS?

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