Process Dynamics and Control

Chapter 11

Frequency Response Analysis

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 Chapter Objectives
Process Dynamics and Control

End of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyse frequency response of control
systems
2. Plot Bode-diagram for various processes

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 Introduction
Process Dynamics and Control

• An alternative way to analyze dynamic systems

• Start with the response properties of a first-order
process when forced by a sinusoidal input
• Show how the output response characteristics
depend on the frequency of the input signal.
• A simplified procedure to calculate frequency
response characteristics from the transfer function of
any linear process.
• A powerful tool both for analyzing dynamic systems
and for designing controllers.

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 Sinusoidal forcing of a first-order
process
Process Dynamics and Control

• Responses of first- and second-order

processes forced by a sinusoidal input
• These responses consisted of sine, cosine
and exponential terms.
• For a first-order process, the response to a
general sinusoidal input, x(t )  A sin t
KA
y (t )  2 2 (e t    cos t  sin t )
  1 (11.1)

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 • If the sinusoidal input is continued for a long
time, the exponential term becomes
Process Dynamics and Control

negligible. Eqn (11.1) after some

manipulations,
This term dies out for large t
K p t 
Kp
y (t )  e  sin(t   )
  1
2 2
  1
2 2

where    tan 1 ( )

Kp
y (t )  sin(t   )
  1
2 2 (11.2)

Frequency response

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Process Dynamics and Control

Attenuation and time shift between input and output sine

waves (K =1). The phase angle  = t/P x 360o, where t is
the time shift and P is the period of oscillation.

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 Features of frequency response
Process Dynamics and Control

1. The output signal is a sine wave

• has the same frequency
• its phase is shifted relative to the input
sine wave by an angle 
  is referred to as the phase shift or the
phase angle
• Amount of phase shift depends on the
forcing frequency, 

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 Features of frequency response
Process Dynamics and Control

2. The output signal is a sine wave

• has an amplitude  that is also the
function of the forcing frequency:
KA
Aˆ  (11.3)
  1
2 2

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 Amplitude Ratio
Process Dynamics and Control

Dividing both sides of (11.3) by the input signal

amplitude A
Aˆ K
AR  
A  2 2  1 (11.4)
Dividing (11.4) by the process gain, K
Normalized amplitude ratio
AR 1
AR N   (11.5)
K  2 2  1

Normalized amplitude ratio is used for

frequency response analysis since process
gain, K, is constant
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 Method for finding the frequency
response
Process Dynamics and Control

Step 1: Set s = j to obtain G(j)

Step 2: Rationalize G(j)
Express G(j) as R + jI, where R and I
are functions of  and possibly model
parameters
Find the complex conjugate of the
denominator of G(j) and multiply both
numerator and denominator of G(j)
by this quantity
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 Method for finding the frequency
response
Process Dynamics and Control

Step 3: The output sine wave has amplitude

Aˆ  A R 2  I 2 and phase angle = tan-1(I/R)

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 Example
Process Dynamics and Control

Find the frequency response of a first-order

system
1
G ( s)  (11.6)
s  1
Solution:
Substitute s = j in the transfer function
1 1
G ( j )   (11.7)
j  1 j  1

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Process Dynamics and Control

Multiply both numerator and denominator by

the complex conjugate of the denominator, that
is, -j + 1
 j  1  j  1
G ( j )   2 2
 j  1  j  1    1  (11.8)
1  
 2 2 j 2 2  R  jI
   1  
  1 
where
1   (11.9)
R 2 2 I 2 2
   1    1

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Process Dynamics and Control

2 2
 1     
AR  G ( j )   2 2    2 2  (11.10)
   1    1

Simplifying

1   2 2 1
AR  
 
2 2
 1
2
 2 2  1
(11.11)

  G ( j )  tan 1 ( )   tan 1 ( ) (11.12)

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 If the process gain had been K instead of 1,
Process Dynamics and Control

K
AR  (11.13)
  1
2 2

The phase angle would be unchanged

• The direct analysis of complex transfer
function is computationally easier than for
solving for the actual long-time output
response
• Advantages are even greater when dealing
with more complicated processes

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 More complicated systems
Process Dynamics and Control

Consider a general transfer function in factored

form
Ga ( s )Gb ( s )Gc ( s ) . . .
G( s)  (11.14)
G1 ( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s ) . . .
G(s) is converted to the complex form by the
substitution s = j
Ga ( j )Gb ( j )Gc ( j ) . . . (11.15)
G ( j ) 
G1 ( j )G2 ( j )G3 ( j ) . . .

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 The magnitude and angle of (11.15) can be
Process Dynamics and Control

expressed as
Ga ( j ) Gb ( j ) Gc ( j ) . . .
G ( j )  (11.16a)
G1 ( j ) G2 ( j ) G3 ( j ) . . .

G ( j )  Ga ( j )  Gb ( j )  Gc ( j ) . . .

(11.16b)
-  G1 ( j )  G2 ( j )  G3 ( j ) . . .

• Equation (11.16) greatly simplify the

computation of magnitude and phase angle
and consequently AR and 

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 Example 2
Process Dynamics and Control

Calculate the AR and phase angle for the

transfer function
K
G(s) 
 1s  1 2 s  1

Using (11.14), let Ga ( s )  K

G1 ( s )   1s  1
G2 ( s )   2 s  1
substituting s = j
Ga ( j )  K
G1 ( j )  j 1  1
G2 ( j )  j 2  1
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 The magnitudes and angles of each
component of the complex transfer function
Process Dynamics and Control

are:
Ga  K Ga  0
G1  ω 2 τ11  1 G1  tan 1 ( 1 )
G2   2 22  1 G2  tan 1 ( 2 )
Combining these expressions via (11.16) yields
Ga
AR  G ( j )    G ( j )
G1 G2
 Ga   G1  G2 
K
   tan 1 ( 1 )  tan 1 ( 2 )
 2 12  1  2 22  1

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 Bode Diagrams
Process Dynamics and Control

• A special graph provides a convenient display of the

frequency response characteristics
• AR and  are plotted as a function of 
  is expressed in units of radians/time
• Phase angle  is expressed in degrees
• Bode diagram consists of
– A log-log plot of AR vs 
– A semilog plot of  vs 
• Useful for rapid analysis of the response
characteristics and stability of closed-loop systems

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 Log-log graph sheet
1
10
Process Dynamics and Control

Slope +1

0
10

-1
10
Slope -1
decade

-2
10
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

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 Bode Diagrams: First-order Process
Process Dynamics and Control

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 Bode Diagrams: First-order Process
Process Dynamics and Control

• The abscissa  has units of radians

• If K and are known, ARN (or AR) and  can be
plotted as a function of 

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 Properties of Bode plot of the first-order
system
Process Dynamics and Control

• At low frequencies ( << 1/), ARN = 1;  = 0

 AR = K
 Amplitude ratio approaches the process gain
 Phase shift becomes quite small

• At high frequencies ( >> 1/), ARN = 1/;  = -90o

•  Amplitude ratio drops to an infinitesimal level
 Phase shift becomes –90o

• Phase lag = positive value of phase angle

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 Properties of Bode plot of the first-order
system
Process Dynamics and Control

• Low frequency asymptote : ARN = 1

• High frequency asymptote : ARN = 1/

• The asymptotes intersect at  = b = 1/

• Known as the break frequency or corner frequency, c
AR 1
AR N    0.707
K 11

• An important feature of log-log ARN plot for the first-

order system is that the slope of the high-frequency
asymptote is -1

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 Properties of Bode plot of the first-order
system
Process Dynamics and Control

• ARN = 1/
• log ARN = log 1 – log  = – log 

• The phase angle always lies between 0 and –90o

• Phase angle at b = tan-1(-1)= -45o

• Different AR
ARdb = 20 log AR

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 Bode Diagrams: Second-order Process
Process Dynamics and Control

K
A general transfer function: G(s) = 2 2
 s  2s  1
K
AR 
1    
2 2 2

 2  2

  2 
  tan  1

1    
2 2

Note: While evaluating , multiple results are possible;

Appropriate solution for second-order system yields
–180o <  < 0.

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Process Dynamics and Control

Overdamped Underdamped

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 Properties of Bode plot of the second-order
system
Process Dynamics and Control

• Low-frequency limits of the second-order system are

identical to those of the first-order system
• The limits are different at high frequencies

ARN  1 /   
2

  180o

• The high-frequency asymptote has a slope of -2 in

the log-log plot
• log ARN = log 1 – 2 log  = –2 log 

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 Properties of Bode plot of the second-order
system
Process Dynamics and Control

•For overdamped systems, the ARN is attenuated for all


•For underdamped systems, the AR plot exhibits a
maximum (for values of 0 < ξ < 0.707) at the resonant
frequency
1  2 2
r 

1
 AR N  max 
2 1  2 2

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 Example
Process Dynamics and Control

Find the frequency response and provide the Bode plot

for the third-order transfer function, where the time
constants are in minutes

1
G(s) 
10s  1 5s  1 s  1
K
AR  G ( j ) 
10  2  1  5  2  1  2 1

  G ( j )
  tan 1 (10 )  tan 1 (5 )  tan 1 ( )

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Process Dynamics and Control

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 Bode plot – Integrating process
Process Dynamics and Control

K
G (s) 
s

K K
AR  G ( j )  
j 
  G ( j )  K      90o

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 Bode plot – Process Zero
Process Dynamics and Control

G ( s)  s  1 AR   2 2  1

G ( j )  j  1   G ( j )  tan 1 ( )

• High frequency asymptote

AR  

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 Bode plot – Time Delay
Process Dynamics and Control

G ( j )  e  j
 cos   j sin 

AR  G ( j )  cos 2   sin 2   1
 sin  
  G ( j )  tan  
1

 cos  
  

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Process Dynamics and Control

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 Example
Process Dynamics and Control

Use the Bode plots to represent the frequency response

of the following system
5(8s  1)e 6 s
G ( s) 
(20s  1)(4s  1)

Time constants and time delay have units of minutes

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Process Dynamics and Control

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 Frequency response characteristics
of feedback controllers
Process Dynamics and Control

Proportional Controller Gc ( s )  K c AR  K c
  0o
Proportional Integral Controller

Gc ( s )  K c 1 
1 

  I  2  1
AR  K c
 Is   I
  tan 1 ( I )  90o

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  10s  1 
Gc ( s )  2 
 10s 
Process Dynamics and Control

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 Gc ( s )  2 4 s  1  4s  1 
Gc ( s )  2 
 0.4 s  1 
Process Dynamics and Control

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 Bode stability criterion
Process Dynamics and Control

• The characteristic equation was defined to be

1  GOL ( s )  0 GOL ( s )  1

• The corresponding magnitude and argument are

GOL ( j )  1

GOL ( j )  180o

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 Bode stability criterion
Process Dynamics and Control

1. A critical frequency c is defined to be a

value for  for which OL() = -180o. This
frequency is also referred to as phase
crossover frequency
2. A gain crossover frequency g is defined to
be the value for which AROL() = 1

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 Bode stability criterion
Process Dynamics and Control

A closed loop system is stable if AROL(c) < 1.

Otherwise, it is unstable.

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 Gain and Phase Margins
Process Dynamics and Control

Let ARc be the open-loop amplitude ratio at the

critical frequency c.

Gain margin is defined as

 1
GM 
ARc

• Provides a measure of relative stability

• Indicates how much any gain in the feedback
loop can increase before instability occurs

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 Gain and Phase Margins
Process Dynamics and Control

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 Gain and Phase Margins
Process Dynamics and Control

Phase margin is defined as


PM 180   g
• Also provides a measure of relative stability
• Indicates how much additional time delay can
be included in the feedback loop before
instability occurs

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 Guidelines
Process Dynamics and Control

In general, a well-tuned controller should have

a gain margin between 1.7 and 4.0 and a
phase margin between 30o and 45o.

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