CHAPTER 4.

BREAKDOWN IN SOLID DIELECTRIC

• INTRODUCTION

• INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN
• ELECTROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
• THERMAL BREAKDOWN
• BREAKDOWN OF SOLID DIELECTRICS
IN PRACTICE
• BREAKDOWN IN COMPOSITE DILECTRICS
• SOLID DILECTRICS USED IN PRACTICE
1
INTRODUCTION
Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical apparatus
and device to insulate one current carrying part from another when
they operate at different voltages.
Solid dielectric have higher breakdown strength compared to liquids
and gases
A good dielectric should have :
• Low dielectric loss
• High mechanical strength
• Should be free from gaseous inclusions and moisture
• Resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration
Types of Solid insulating materials:
• Organic materials (paper, wood and rubber)
• Inorganic materials (Mica, glass and porcelain and synthetic
2
polymers)
Breakdown in solid dielectric occurs, if solid
dielectric strength less than electric stress.

Breakdown Mechanism in solid dielectric depend on the time

of application of voltage, and can be classified as follows:

1. Intrinsic or ionic breakdown

2. Electromechanical breakdown
3. Failure due to treeing and tracking
4. Thermal Breakdown
5. Electrochemical Breakdown, and
6. Breakdown due to internal discharges

3
Fig. Variation of Breakdown strength
4
Intrinsic Breakdown
Intrinsic Breakdown occurs if the applied on solid dielectric
increases to 10 6 Volt/cm in short duration in order 10-8 sec.
This breakdown depends upon the presence of free
electrons which are capable of migration through the lattice
of the dielectric.
Based on experiment the maximum electrical
strength recorded is15 MV/cm for Polyvinyl at -196
0C. The maximum strength usually obtainable
ranges from 5 MV/cm to 10 MV/cm
There are two types of intrinsic breakdown mechanism e.g
Electronic Breakdown and Streamer Breakdown (avalanche).

5
Electronic Breakdown
The initial density of conduction (free) electrons is also
assumed to be large, and electron-electron collision
occur. When an electric field is applied, electrons gain
energy from the electric field and cross the forbidden
energy gap from the valency to the conduction band.
When the process is repeated, more and more
electrons become available in the conduction band,
eventually leading to BD

6
Streamer Breakdown
Conduction electron gain sufficient energy above a certain
critical electric field and cause liberation of electrons from
the lattice atoms by collisions.

An electron within the dielectric, starting from cathode will

drift towards the anode and during this motion gains energy
from the field and loses it during collision. When the energy
gained by an electron exceeds the lattice ionization
potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to
collision on the first electron. This process repeats itself
resulting in the formation of an electron avalanche. BD will
occur, when the avalanche exceeds a certain critical size.
7
ELECTROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
When solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields,
failure occurs due to electrostatic compressive forces which
Can exceed the mechanical compressive strength. If the
thickness of the specimen is do and is compressive to a
thickness d is under applied voltage V, then the electrically
developed compressive stress is in equilibrium if,

V2  2Y   d 0 
d0  V d 
2 2
 Ln  
 0 r  (Y ) Ln d  or  o r   d 
2d 2  

Y = the Young’s modulus Max. Electric stress before BD

1/ 2
Mechanical instability occurs V  Y 
E max   0.6 
d/do = 0.6 or do /d = 1.67 do  
 o r

Y = f (mechanical stress) 8
Thermal Breakdown

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction

current, however small it may be, flows through the material.

The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.

The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by

conduction through the solid dielectric and by radiation

from its outer surfaces. Equilibrium is reached when the heat

used to raise the temperature of the dielectric, plus the heat

radiated out, equals the heat generated.

9
Equilibrium is reached when the heat used to raise the
temperature of the dielectric, plus the heat radiated
out, equal the heat generated.
The heat generated under dc stress E is given as,

Wdc  E 2 W/cm2

 = dc conductivity of the specimen

The heat generated under a.c fields,

E 2 f r tan 
Wac  W/cm2
1.8 x1012

f = frequency (Hz),   loss angle of the dielectric

material
E = rms value 10
The heat dissipated (WT) is given by
dT
WT  CV  div ( K  grad  T )
dt
Cv = Specific heat of the specimen
T = temperature of the specimen,
K = thermal conductivity of the specimen
t = time over which the heat is dissipated

BD occurs when
Wdc > WT for dc
Wac > WT for ac
11
Example:

A solid specimen of dielectric has a dielectric constant of

4.2, and tan  0.001 at a frequency of 50 Hz. If it is
subjected to an alternating field of 50 kV/cm, calculate the
heat generated in the specimen due to the electric loss.
Using eq.

E 2 f r tan 
Wac  12 = {(502) x 106 x 50 x 4.2 x 0.001} / 1.8 x 102
1.8 x10

=
0.291 mW/m3

12
BD OF SOLID DIELECTRICS IN PRACTICE

BD actually can occurred after prolonged

operation, and can be classified in two e.g
• BD due to Treeing and Tracking
• Chemical and Electrochemical BD
• BD due to internal discharges

13
Chemical and Electrochemical BD

The Electrochemical BD caused by transformation

such as electrolysis, formation ozone.
Failure also occurs due to partial discharges which are
brought about in
the air pockets inside the insulation. This BD is very
important in the impregnated paper insulation used in
HV cables and capacitors.

In the presence of air and other gases some dielectric

materials undergo chemical changes when subjected
to continuous electrical stresses.

14
Some of the important chemical reactions that
occur are;

Oxidation: in the presence Air or O2 in materials such as

rubber and polyethylene undergo oxidation giving rise to
surface cracks.

Hydrolysis: When moisture or water vapor is present on

the surface of a solid dielectric, hydrolysis occurs and the
materials such as paper, cotton tape, and other cellulose
materials deteriorate very rapidly due to hydrolysis. Plastic
like polyethylene undergo changes, and their service life
considerably reduces. 15
Chemical action: progressive chemical
degradation of insulating materials can occurs
due to variety of processes such as chemical
instability at high temperature, oxidation and
cracking in the presence of air or ozone, and
hydrolysis due to moisture and heat.

16
BD due to Tracking and Treeing
BD due to tracking in which dry conducting tracks are
formed on the insulator surface leading to gradual bd along
the surface of the insulator.

When a solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for

long time fails, normally two kinds of visible markings are
observed on the electric materials. They are
1. The presence of a conducting path across the surface
of insulation
2. Leakage current passes through the conducting path
finally leading to the formation of a spark. This spark
causes insulation deterioration occurs.
17
Tracking is the formation of a continuous conducting path
across the surface of the insulation mainly due to surface
erosion under voltage application.
The spreading of a spark channels during tracking, in the
form of the branches of the tree is called treeing.
Tracking occurs even at very low voltages of the order of a
bout 100 V, whereas treeing requires high voltage
Treeing occurs due to the erosion of material at the tips of
the spark. Erosion results in the roughening of the surface
and hence becomes a source of dirt contamination.

Under a.c voltage condition treeing can occur in a few

minutes or several hours.
. 18
Treeing can be prevented by having clean, dry, and
undamaged surface and a clean environment.
The material chosen should be resistant to tracking.
Standard testing for tracking: IEC 587 (1984), ASTM-D-
495 (1973) etc.
Sometimes moistures repellant greases are used. But
this needs frequent cleaning and regressing.
Treeing phenomenon is observed in capacitors and
cables, and extensive work is being done to
investigate the real and natural causes of this
phenomenon.

19
 A Dielectric material lies between electrodes,
The voltage V1 across the air gap is given as

Vd1
V1 
 1 
d1   d 2
 2 

Since ε2 > ε1, most of the voltage appears across d1,

air gap. Sparking will occur in the air gap and,
charge accumulation takes place on the surface of 20
the insulation.
Example:
A solid dielectric specimen of dielectric constant of 4.0 shown
in the figure has an internal void of thickness 1 mm. The
specimen is 1 cm thick and is subjected to a voltage of 80 kV
(rms). If the void is filled with air and if breakdown strength of
air can be taken as 30 kV (peak)/cm, find the voltage at which
an internal discharge can occur.

21
From Figure can be known that
d1 = 1 mm; d2 = 9 mm;

εo = 8.89 x 10-12 F/m

ε1 = εo εr = 4.0 εo
Using formula,

Vd1 Vx1  4V 
V1  V1   
 1   9   13 
d1   d 2 1  
 4
 2 

V1 = (13 V) / 4 = (13 x 3) / 4
22
The voltage at which the air void of 1mm thickness
breaks down is 3 kV/mm x 1 mm = 3 kV.

V1 = (13 V) / 4 = (13 x 3) / 4
= 9.75 kV (peak)

23
BD due to Internal Discharges

Solid insulating materials contain voids or cavities within

the medium or at the boundaries between the dielectric
and the electrodes. These voids are generally filled with a
medium of lower dielectric strength, and the dielectric
constant of the medium in the voids is lower than that
insulation. Hence the electric field higher than that across
the dielectric. Therefore, even under normal working
voltages the field in the voids may exceed their BD value,
and BD occur.

24
25
When the applied voltage is V, the voltage across the
void is
Vd1
V1 
 o 
d1   d 2
 1 

Usually d1 « d2, and if we assume that the cavity is filled

with a gas, then
 d1 
V1  V r  
 d2 

When a voltage V is applied, V1 reaches BD strength of medium in the

cavity (Vi) and breakdown occurs. Vi is called the discharge inception
voltage.
26
BD IN COMPOSITE DIELECTRIC
• Composite materials are composed of different chemical
substances or with materials of different compositions in
series or parallel.
• Chemical reactions occurs when a voltage is applied to
them and there will be a substantial increase, if the applied
voltage is continuous and high temperature are present.
• These conditions, the composites undergo chemical
deterioration leading to reduction in both the electrical and
mechanical strength.
• example composite
Solid/solid : Cable
Solid/Liquid : Capacitor, transformer, oil-filled switchgear
27
Solid/SF : Circuit breaker etc
Composite Dielectric Properties of the layered
construction
a). Effect of multiple layers
b). Effect of layer thickness
c). Effect of Interfaces
Effect of multiple layers
The simplest dielectric composite consist of two layers
of the same material. Advantages
* Have a higher dielectric strength than single sheet
of the same total thickness
* Have a wide variation in dielectric strength values at
different points on its surface 28
Effect of Layer Thickness

•Increase in layer thickness gives increased BD voltage

BD channels occur at the interface only not directly
through another layer.

•Layered construction is very important in the case of

insulating paper since the paper thickness itself varies
from point to point and consequently the dielectric strength
across its surface is not homogeneous.

29
•The differences in the thickness impart a rough surface to
paper which can produce an electric field stress
comparable to that of the discharge channel.
•The rough surface of the paper also helps in better
impregnation when tightly wound.
The existence of areas with lower thickness in the paper
can cause BD at these point at considerably lower voltage

30
Effect of interface
Discharge usually occur at the interfaces and the magnitude
of the discharge depend on the associated surface resistance
and capacitance.
If the surface conductivity increase, the discharge magnitude
also increases, resulting in damage to the dielectric.

The others composite dielectric properties

•The discharge inception voltage depends on the
thickness of the solid dielectric, the dielectric constant of
the both
•The difference in the dielectric constant between the
liquid and solid does not significantly affect the rate of
change of electric field at the electrode edge
31
 MECHANISME OF BREAKDOWN
IN COMPOSITE DIELECTRICS

Short-term breakdown, If the electric field stresses are very high, failure
may occur in seconds or even faster without any substantial damage

to the insulating surface prior to BD. Its due to result from one or
more discharges when the applied voltage is close to the breakdown
value. rapidly when the electric field in the insulation is such that
assists the

Breakdown occurs more charged particles in the discharge to

penetrate into insulation.

32
Long-term Breakdown, is also the ageing of insulation. This BD
result in process thermal and partial discharge. Partial
discharge normally occur within volume of the composite
insulation systems. The charge accumulation and conduction
on the surface of the insulation also contributes significantly
toward the ageing and failure of insulation.
i) Ageing and breakdown due to partial discharge
ii) Ageing and breakdown due to accumulation of charge on
insulator surface.

33
 SOLID DIELECTRICS USED IN PRACTICE
Organic materials
Inorganic materials
Synthetic polymers

Organic Materials
Produced from vegetable or animal matter
Good insulators and can be easily adopted for practical application
Mechanical and electrical properties always deteriorate rapidly when
temperature exceed 100 C degree.
Used after treating with a varnish or impregnation with an oil.
For example: paper and press board used in cables, capacitors and
transformers.
34
Inorganic Material
Mechanical and electrical properties, not show appreciable reduction
temperature up to 250 C degree.
For example: glasses and ceramics resistance to atmospheric pollutant,
excellent performance under varying conditions of temperature and pressure.
widely used for insulators, bushing.

Synthetic polymers
Posses excellent insulating properties
Easy fabricated and applied to the apparatus
Have low melting temperature in the range 100 – 120 C degree
Very flexible and can be molded and extruded
Widely used for bushing, insulators etc.

35
 Classification of solid Insulation Materials

Organic Inorganic Synthetic Polymer

Thermoplastic Thermosetting
Cotton Asbestos Polyethylene Epoxy resin
Paper Ceramics Polystyrene Melamine
Pressboard Glass Polyvinylchloride Bakelite
Rubber Mica Polycarbonate Elastomers
Wood Perspex Crosslinked

36
Paper and Boards
Paper is hygroscopic,
Tissue paper or Kraft paper used for insulation purposes.
Pressboard used in transformers and bushings as supporting materials
and insulating barrier.
Fibres
When used for electrical purposes will have the ability to combine strength
And durability with extreme fineness and flexibility.
Types of fibres: cotton, jute, falx, wool, silk, nylon, teflon and fibreglass
Fibreglass absorb very little water and hence have very high resistance.
Mica
Posses high dielectric strength (700 kv/mm-1000kV/mm), low dielectric
losses (0.03), good mechanical strength, resistance to high temperature.
37
Glass
Dielectric constant varies 3.7 – 10
Dielectric loss varies 0.004 – 0.02
Dielectric strength varies 3000 to 5000 kV/cm and decrease with
Increase temperature.
Used as a cover and for internal supports in electric bulb, capacitor.
Ceramics
Can be divided two groups:

Low permittivity ceramics ( εr <12) are used as insulators

High permittivity ceramics ( εr >12) are used as Capacitors
Rubber
High elastic properties. General impurities, chemical changes due to
aging, moisture content, variation in temperature and frequency have
effect on the electrical properties of rubber.
38
Plastic
Epoxy resin
Polyester
Polystyrenes

39
40