Lesson 1.

4 Redshift and Cosmic

Microwave Background Radiation
 Big Bang Theory
The big bang theory is a cosmological model
stating that the universe started its expansion
about 13.8 billion years ago. Pieces of evidence
supporting this theory are
(1) occurrence of redshift,
(2) background radiation, and
(3) abundance of light elements.
Doppler shift
• The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains
that when an object gets closer to us, its
light waves are compressed into shorter
wavelengths (blueshifted, because blue light
has the shortest wavelength in the visible
region).
• On the other hand, when an object moves
away from us, its light waves are stretched
into longer wavelengths (redshifted, because
red light has the longest wavelength in the
visible region).
• Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the
redshift or increase in wavelength was due to the
increase in the distance between the Earth and
the nebulae. They concluded that the redshift
occurred due to the expansion of space.
• In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light
from galaxies to calculate the velocities and
distances of these galaxies from the Earth. He
discovered that they were moving away from the
Earth and from each other. His calculations
supported the theory that the universe is
expanding.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
• In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered
a low, steady “hum” from their Holmdel Horn antenna
(an antenna built to support NASA’s Project Echo).
• They concluded that the noise is Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation (CMBR), the remains of energy
created after the big bang expansion. Abundance of
Light Elements The observed abundance of light
elements supports the big bang theory.
• The theory predicts that the universe is composed of
73% hydrogen and 25% helium by mass. The
prediction correlated to the measured abundances of
primordial material in unprocessed gas in some parts
of the universe with no stars.
Formation of Light Elements
• Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the
light elements during the big bang expansion. In the
beginning, the universe was very hot that matter was fully
ionized and dissociated. Few seconds after the start of the
big bang, the universe was filled with protons, neutrons,
electrons, neutrinos, and positrons.
• After the first three minutes, the universe cooled down to
a point where atomic nuclei can form. Protons and
neutrons combined to form atomic nuclei such as
deuterium.
• However, the temperature of the universe was still much
greater than the binding energy of deuterium. Binding
energy is the energy required to break down a nucleus
into its components. Therefore, deuterium easily decayed
upon formation.
 Learn about it!
• When the temperature cooled down below 1010
K, deuterium nuclei combined with other nuclei to
form heavier ones.
• Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two deuterium
nuclei and a release of a neutron. (See figure on the
formation of Helium-3)
• Tritium or hydrogen-3 was produced from the
fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of
a proton. (See figure on the formation of
Tritium or hydrogen-3)
• Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium
and helium-3. (See figure on the formation of
Helium-4)

• Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of

deuterium and tritium. (See figure on the
formation of Helium-4)
 Learn about it!
• For the first three minutes, a substantial amount
of neutrons was converted into helium-4 nuclei,
before their decay. Helium then combined to
other nuclei to form heavier ones such as
lithium-7 and beryllium-7.
• Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.
• Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and helium-4.

• Among the light elements formed, deuterium, helium-3,

helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. Beryllium-7 was
unstable and decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.
Lesson 2.1 The Ideas of the Ancient
Greeks on the Atom

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical

Elements
The Indivisible Atom
Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.)
and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus
(c.500 B.C.) were Greek scholars who
believed that matter could be divided into
tiny particles until such point where it can
no longer be divided anymore.
The Indivisible Atom
They became the first proponents
of the atomic theory. Their early
ideas on atoms are summarized
below.
The Indivisible Atom
1. All matter is made up of tiny,
indivisible particles called atoms,
which come from the Greek word
atomos meaning uncuttable. The
atoms are indestructible,
impenetrable, and unchangeable.
The Indivisible Atom
2. The atoms make up the universe as
they are continuously moving in a
“void” that surrounds them, repelling
each other when they collide, or
combining into clusters.
The Indivisible Atom
3. Atoms are completely solid which
means that there is no void or
empty space inside that will make
them prone to disintegration or
destruction.
The Indivisible Atom
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature.
They have no internal structures.

5. Atoms come in different shapes

and sizes.
These proposed ideas about
atoms were supported by some
Greek philosophers but were
strongly opposed by others
especially Aristotle.
Learn about it!
Aristotle's Opposing View on
Atoms
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher,
had a different view on atoms.
He disregarded the existence of
atoms proposed by Leucippus
and Democritus. Learn about
it!
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
He did not believe that matter is a
collection of atoms. Instead, he
believed that everything in the
universe is made up of the four
elements, air, fire, water, and
earth.
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
He stated that believing in atoms
would mean putting restriction on
the gods, who have the power to
divide elements smaller than the
atom.
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished
especially in the Middle Ages in
Europe, where Roman Catholics
were strongly influenced by his
ideas.
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
They believed that ideas about the
atoms equated to Godlessness.
Thus, the whole concept of the
atom was dismissed for centuries.
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
However, the Greeks' concept of
atoms and even Aristotle's
arguments were rediscovered in
France at the start of the
Renaissance period.
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

The theory of Aristotle was

proven incorrect, and
Democritus' and Leucippus'
theory on the existence of atoms
was proven right.
Explore!
Choose one digital photo and
zoom in. Can you see a group of
tiny squares? They are called
pixels. How can you relate them
to atoms?
Try it!
Get a piece of paper. Divide it
into half as many times as you
can. What do you notice? How
would you relate this activity to
the concept of the atoms?
Key Points
 Democritus and Leucippus,
ancient Greek philosophers, first
proposed the idea of the atom.
 Their theory states that all matter
is made up of tiny, indivisible
particles called atoms.
Key Points
 They believed that the atoms are very
small, have different shapes and sizes,
are continuously moving, and can
combine with other atoms.
 Aristotle did not believe that matter is
strictly a collection of atoms, and that
matter can be made of air, fire, water,
or earth.
Key Points
 Democritus’ idea on the
existence of atoms was
accepted, and Aristotle’s
argument was proven
incorrect.
 Democritus
Democritus was an
influential Ancient
Greek pre-Socratic
philosopher primarily
remembered today for
his formulation of an
atomic theory of the
universe.
Democritus
Democritus was
born in Abdera,
Thrace, around
460 BC, although,
some thought it
was 490 BC.
 Leucippus
Leucippus (/luːˈsɪpəs/; Greek:
Λεύκιππος, Leúkippos; fl.
5th cent. BCE) is reported in
some ancient sources to have
been a philosopher who was
the earliest Greek to develop
the theory of atomism—the
idea that everything is
composed entirely of various
imperishable, indivisible
elements called atoms.
Lesson 2.2 The Discovery of the Structure
of the Atom and its Subatomic
Particles

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical

Elements
Learn about it!
Greek philosophers
Democritus and
Leucippus developed
the idea that all
matter is composed
of tiny, indivisible
particles called
atoms.
However, their
atomic theory was
based only on
assumptions. It was
not until the early
1800s that
experiments were
performed to
develop models for
the structure of the
atom.
In 1803, John Dalton, a
British scientist, did
experiments on
mixtures of gases. He
studied how the
properties of
individual gases affect
the properties of the
mixtures of these
gases.
He developed the hypothesis that the sizes of
the particles making up different gases must
be different. After several experiments, he
concluded that all matter is composed of
spherical atoms, which cannot be broken
down into smaller pieces. He added that all
atoms of one element are identical to each
other but different from the atoms of another
element.
Learn about it!
Discovery of the Subatomic Particles
The Electrons in the
Plum Pudding Model
In 1897, Joseph John
Thomson, a British
physicist, proposed an
atomic model known as
the plum pudding model.
Discovery of the Subatomic Particles
His model consisted of
negatively charged
particles (plum) spread
evenly throughout the
positively charged
material (pudding). The
small, negatively
charged particles are
called electrons.
Learn about it!
Recent Atomic Models
Bohr’s Atomic Model
Rutherford’s model
showed that the
electrons and nucleus
have opposite charges
which according to the
laws of physics, will
attract each other.
Recent Atomic Models

Thus, Rutherford's
model would have
electrons collapsing
into the nucleus,
making the atom
unstable.
Recent Atomic Models
Niels Bohr solved this
problem by proposing
that the electrons orbit
around the nucleus in
set energy levels. An
electron absorbs energy
if it moves from lower
to higher energy level,
and it emits energy if it
returns to the lower
energy level.
Recent Atomic Models
Recent Atomic Models
Quantum Mechanical
Model
The quantum
mechanical model
of the atom states
that a nucleus is
surrounded by a
cloud of electrons
called orbitals.
Recent Atomic Models
Quantum Mechanical Model
It explains that it is impossible to determine
the exact location of the electron at a given
time, but one can find its probable location.
It incorporates the concept of Bohr’s model
where the electrons move in one orbital to
another by absorbing or emitting energy.
What do you think?
Based on Bohr's atomic model, what causes
an electron to move from one orbital to
another?
Lesson 2.3 Understanding the Structure of
Atom: The Contributions of J.J.
Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry
Moseley, and Niels Bohr

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical

Elements
Guide Question
What are the contributions of Joseph John
(J.J.) Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry
Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the
understanding of the structure of the atom?
Learn about it!
J.J. Thomson’s Discovery
of the Electron
In 1897, J.J. Thomson
discovered the electrons by
conducting a series of
experiments using a high-
vacuum cathode-ray tube
that was composed of
negatively charged particles
1000 times lighter than the
hydrogen atom.
J.J. Thomson’s
Discovery of the Electron
He also proposed a sea of
positive charge for the
overall neutrality of the
atom.
He then proposed an atomic
model known as the plum
pudding model depicting a
sphere of positive charge
(pudding) with negatively
charged particles (plums)
embedded all throughout.
Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus
In the early 1900s,
Rutherford discovered
the nucleus containing
positively charged
particles called
protons. He advised his
students, Hans Geiger
and Ernest Marsden, to
bombard a thin sheet
of gold foil with alpha
particles.
Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

He assumed that the alpha particles would

just pass straight through the foil,
meaning an atom has a void space.

However, after the experiment, some

particles passed right through it, and
some were deflected. He arrived at these
two conclusions:
Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

(1) The atom contained an empty space, as

some particles went through the foil; and
(2) (2) The atom had a very dense center of
positive charge. From these, Rutherford
proposed the planetary model. He
believed that the electrons moved
around a nucleus.
Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number
In 1913, Henry Moseley, a
British chemist, developed
the use of X-ray in studying
the structure of the atom.
During this time, a coherent
structure of the atom was
being developed, starting
from J.J. Thomson’s
discovery of the electron to
Rutherford’s publication of
his planetary model.
Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number
He published results of his measurements of
wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some
elements that coincided with the order of their
atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data
backed up Rutherford’s structure of the atom
with a very dense center of positive charge.
The data also justified that the atomic number
of an element is the number of positive
charges in its nucleus.
Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model
If you would recall in magnetism, unlike
charges attract. In Rutherford’s model,
since the electron and the nucleus have
opposite charges, the electrons would
collapse into the nucleus, making the atom
unstable.
Niels Bohr modified this model by proposing
that the electrons move in fixed energy
levels or orbits by absorbing or emitting
energy.
Try it!
Look at the periodic table. List down three
elements with the lowest atomic number
and three with the highest atomic
number. What does the low and high
atomic numbers signify?
Key Points
 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and
proposed the plum pudding model.
 Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus
and proposed the planetary model.
 Henry Moseley used the X-rays in studying
the structure of the atom. The results of his
experiments supported Rutherford's model.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons move
in fixed energy levels or orbits.
The Atomic Structure and the
Chemical Elements
Lesson 2.4 The Nuclear Model of the
Atom key
Learn about it!
If you have lived during the time when the
atom was discovered, how would you
describe its structure?
As subatomic particles were discovered,
models for their arrangement in the atom were
developed. There was J. J. Thomson’s plum-
pudding model, which he proposed after his
discovery of the electrons. Then there was
Ernest Rutherford’s planetary model,
proposed after the discovery of the protons in
the nucleus.
The Nuclear Model
The nuclear model
states that the nucleus
is small, dense, and
located at the center of
the atom. It contains
protons and neutrons.
Overall, it is positively
charged. It contains
nearly all the mass of
the atom. The electrons
orbit around it.
Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Under Rutherford's
supervision, Hans Geiger, his
assistant, and Ernest Marsden,
an undergraduate student,
shot a narrow beam of alpha
particles at a very thin sheet
of gold foil and measured the
scattering pattern on a
fluorescent screen. It was
observed that some particles
deflected, and others
penetrated through the sheet
of gold foil.
There was a force behind the deflections –
the repulsion of the positively charged alpha
particles by a positively charged material. If
this charge existed in a sphere with the same
size of the atom, the force should have been
weak. This led to the assumption that the
charge was concentrated in a small space or
sphere.
Rutherford proposed that the positive charge,
and the mass of the atom were concentrated
in a small part of the total volume of the
atom called the nucleus.
Learn about it!
Issues Involved in the Nuclear Model
The main problem in Rutherford's model was how
the electrons remained in their orbit without
falling into the nucleus. Another problem is the
electron's continuous centripetal acceleration and
the energy lost through electromagnetic radiation.
This energy would make it approach the nucleus
while increasing the electrostatic force. The
increase in force would increase the acceleration
and the emission of energy. Thus, the nucleus and
the electrons would collide with each other. This
means that the atom would be unstable.
Explore!
Imagine you're holding two magnets with the same
magnetic poles (north to north poles or south to
south poles). When you try to put the magnets
together, there is a force acting upon them which
makes it difficult to do so. The repulsion between
the magnets represents the forces between the
alpha particles and the positively charged material
in the atom of the gold foil as presented in the
Geiger-Marsden experiment of Rutherford and his
colleagues. What is the importance of this scenario
in studying the structure of the atom?
Key Points
 The nuclear model states that the nucleus is
small, dense, and located at the center of the
atom.
 The nucleus is positively charged. It
contains nearly all the mass of the atom.
The electrons orbit around it.
 The nuclear model has been deduced from
the experiment done by Rutherford.