POLYMERS

 Polymers have their origin in nature. Wood, rubber, cotton and cellulose
are few examples of natural polymers.
 But the polymers used day-to-day life in packing, kitchenware,
automobiles are ‘synthetic polymers’.
 The term polymer means ‘many mers’ (part) or units generally repeated
hundred or thousand times in a chain like structure.
 Often the term polymer is used interchangeably with term plastics.
Plastics from Greek word ‘Plastikos’ means easily Moulded or Formed.
 The general characteristics of polymers are:

Light weight, low density, strength and stiffness, low thermal &
Electrical conductivity, good resistance to corrosion, high coefficient of
Thermal expansion, easy to fabricate, low cost.
 POLYMERISATION
Polymers are giant organic molecules
consisting of long chains of repeating
monomers. Monomers are organic molecules in
which the carbon atoms are joined by covalent
bonds with other atoms such as H,O,F,Cl & S.
These smaller monomer molecules are linked
to form giant polymer molecules. This process
is known as ‘Polymerisation’.
Polymerisation takes place either by addition
or condensation mechanism.
Addition polymerisation
It is physical
linking process. In
this an initiator is
added to open the
double bond
between the
carbon atoms. Ex.
Polyethylene
 CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
 Different reacting mers are brought together and they form bonds
by chemical reactions. Reaction by products such as water is
condensed out.
 The linear nylon chain is produced when a hydrogen atom from the
hexamethylene diamine combines with an OH group from adipic acid to
form a water molecule.
 Copolymerisation : It is a addition polymerisation
in which two different types of monomers are
combined in the same chain. These polymers are
coploymer.
 The arrangement in copolymer takes several
forms: random, alternating, block and grafted
polymers.
 Blending or alloying an important means of
improving the serviceability and applicability.
 Blending is physically mixing two or more distinct
polymers to form new product with different
characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMER MOLECULES
The Physical and Mechanical properties of a polymer depends on
the characteristics of polymer molecules. They are,
(1)Molecular weight (2) Chain shape
(3) Type of mers (4) Structure of molecular chain
Molecular weight : molecular weight is an important factor in
determining the properties of polymers. Mol.Wt is depends on its
molecular chain length. Tensile strength increases with
increasing molecular wt.
Chain shape: Depending on how the atoms are placed, a chain may
growth either straight or highly twisted. Entanglement of
polymer provides strength.
 Type of mers: The mechanical property of the polymer depends
on the ability of chain segments to slide or rotate when a stress
is applied. The rotational flexibility depends on the mer unit.
 Chain structure:
Circles designate individual repeat units.
Figure 3. Schematic representations of: (a) linear, (b) branched, (c)
cross linked, and (d) network (three-dimensional) molecular
structures.
 POLYMER ADDITIVES
 Polymers uses additives to improve their properties and performance
n
o
Additive name Purpose Examples

1 Fillers  To improve tensile & compressive Wood flour, silica

strength flour & sand, glass,
 To improve dimensional & thermal clay, talc, mica,
stability limestone.
 To reduce the cost of the final product
2 plasticisers  To improve flexibility, ductility & Polyvinyl chloride,
toughness phthalates,
 To reduce the hardness & stiffness adipates ,
 To increase and control the flow of trimellitate ,
polymer during molding. ricinolates , etc
3 stabilizers  To prevent deterioration due Hindered amines,
environmental effects & ultraviolet benzophenons.
radiation.
4 Colorants  To impart the specific color to a polymer Metal oxides, sulphur
& control optical opacity diodes,carbon,dyes.

5 Reinforcements  To improve the strength & rigidity Carbon fiber, mica,

fabrics(cotton,canvas)
 CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Plastics

Thermoplastics Thermosetplastics

Commodity plastics Engg. plastics Commodity plastics Engg. plastics

Polyethylene(PE) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS)
Phenol silicones
Polypropylene(PP)
Polystyrene(PS)
Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) formaldehyde Urethanes
Polytetra flouroethylene (PTFE)
Polyvinyl Polyamides (PA) Urea Melamines
chloride(PVC) Polycarbonate (PC)
Polyethyene terephthalate(PET)
formaldehyde Epoxies
Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS)
Polyetherether ketone(PEEK)
Polyimide(PI)
Polyamide-imide (PAI)
 THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS
 Thermoplastic polymers consists of a very long chain of carbon atoms
covalently bonded together.
 Generally they are formed by addition polymerisation.
 They are linear polymers so they are composed of chain molecules.
 These molecular chains are bonded to each other by weak secondary
bonds.
 Hence these polymers soften when heated to elevated temperatures
and form the required shape.
 When cooled they become harder and stronger & retain the shapes
they formed.
THERMOSET POLYMERS
 Thermoset polymers have a highly cross linked or three dimensional
network structure in which all the atoms are connected by strong
covalent bonds.
 These polymers are generally produced by condensation polymerisation
 During polymerisation, the network is completed and permanently set.
 Hence thermoset polymers cannot reheated and reformed into new
shapes
 These polymers are generally stronger but more brittle than
thermoplastics.
Polyethylene Polyethylene is an inexpensive
thermoplastic material. It is whitish in color

(PE)
and often fabricated into clear thin films.
Polyethylene also known as polythene, is
made by the polymerisation of ethene ie.,
ethylene (CH2 = CH2 )
Polyethylene is made from petroleum or
natural gas.
TYPES : based on density
1.Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
2.High density polyethylene (HDPE)
3.Linear Low density polyethylene (LLDPE)
4.Ultra-high-molecular weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE)
Good chemical & electrical resistance ,
tough & flexible over a wide range of
temperatures, non-toxic.
Applications : low density grades are often
used for packing film, wire insulation , paper
coatings etc. high density grades are used
for grocery bags, blow - moulded bottles,
under ground piping, house hold items,etc
POLYPROPYLENE(PP)

 Polypropylene is formed from the

monomer propene i.e. propylene
(CH2=CH-CH3)
 It is low cost since it could be
synthesized from low cost
petrochemical raw materials
 In propylene, there is a substitution of
a methyl group on every other carbon
atom.
 Methyl groups creates a restriction to
the chain rotation, producing stronger
material
 PP is stiffer, stronger& harder, high
melting point than PE, good surface
hardness.
 APPLICAIONS: house wares,
packaging, tanks & battery cases,
carpet fibers, ropes.
POLYVINYLCHLORIDE (PVC)
 PVC is the product of chemical
reaction between acetylene gas
(C2H4) & hydrochloric acid in the
presence of suitable catalyst.
 It is made by polymerization of the
monomer vinyl
chloride(CH2=CHCL)
 Presence of large chlorine atom
causes strong dipole moments. This
produce strong cohesive forces
between the polymer chains. This
makes the polymer stronger &
brittle.
 Properties: good electrical
properties, high solvent resistance
 PVC has high flame & chemical
resistance because of its high
CHLORINE.
POLYSTYRENE (PS) • It is a low cost thermoplastics, made
from ethyl benzene
• A large benzene ring replaces a hydrogen
atom on an ethylene molecule.
• The interaction of benzene rings with
adjacent chains hinder the relative
movement
• This structural effect makes this
homopolymer hard & brittle.
• To improve the impact properties, PS is
copolymerised with rubber
(polybutadiene).
• PS is foamed to produce expanded
polystyrene.
• PS have excellent mouldability, low
mould shrinkage & good dimensional
stability.
• APPLICATIONS: disposable food
containers, trays, foams,automobile parts
and radio/TV components.
 POLYMETHYL • PMMA is obtained by reacting
METHACRYLATE(PMMA) methylacrylic acid with an alcohol.
• The polymers based on PMMA is
known as acrylics or plexiglass
• The monomer has a methyl CH3
methacrylate (COOCH3) group each
replacing one hydrogen atom on an
ethylene molecule
• This substitution increases strength
and rigidity.
• This structure is completely
amorphous and has high
transparency to visible light.
• PMMA has also good chemical and
weather resistance.
• APPLICATIONS : Low cost lenses in
cameras, flashlights, safety glasses,
window glazing, machine guards,
sight glasses and weather proof
coatings.
POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET)

• PET is an important thrmoplastic

• The benzene ring structure
provides rigidity to this material
and the ethylene units provide
mobility.
• PET has good mechanical and
electrical insulating properties.
• It can be easily injection moulded
• The use of temperature is higher
than PE and PP.
• Applications:
The applications of PET include
beverage bottles, photography
films and package
POLY CARBONATE (PC)

• Polycarbonate is an important
engineering thermoplastic .
• PC is having high impact strength,
high heat resistance and excellent
mouldability and transparency.
• The applications include helmets,
face shields, window glazing,
automotive parts such as
dashboards, housing for hand held
power tools
POLYAMIDES (PA) or NYLONS

• Poly amides are well known by their

commercial name as Nylons.
• Nylons can be polymerised by the
addition or condensation
polymerisation.
• Addition of ring compounds (Nylon 6,
Nylon 11, Nylon12) or by
condensation between a diamine and
organic acid(Nylon 6/6 and nylon
6/12).
• High strength, good electrical
resistance, high lubricity, low surface
friction and good abrasion resistance.
Drawback is moisture absorption
• Rope, extruded hose, carpets,
Speedometer and wiper gears, cams,
bearings.
ACRYLONITRILE BUTADINE STYRENE (ABS)

• ABS is considered as a blend

of styrene-acrylonitrile
copolymer blended with
butadine rubber.
• Acrylonitrile contributes
heat and chemical
resistance; butadiene
provides impact strength;
styrene provides rigidity
and processability.
• Telephone receivers,
computer housings,
luggage.
POLY TETRA FLUORO ETHYLENE (PTFE)

• Poly tetra fluoro ethylene or

TEFLON is a polymer made from
monomers containing 4 fluorine
atoms.
• It is formed by polymerisation of
tetrafluoroethylene gas.
• It has exceptional chemical
resistance and low coefficient of
friction.
• It has self-lubricating and non-
sticking properties.
• Non stick utensils, self lubricated
bearings, chemically resistant
pipes, high temperature
insulation tapes.
Polyphenylene oxide(PPO)
 PPO is an amorphous linear heterochain polymer.
 The repeating benzene rings hinder the rotation of
polymer molecules & this gives high rigidity, high
strength & heat deflection temperatures.
 It has good electrical properties, high impact strength &
low water absorption rate.
 Main drawback is poor processing characteristics, for
this they blends or copolymers to improve processing
characteristics.
 Applications of PPO are computer housings, TV tuners,
electrical connectors, automobile dashboards and
exterior body parts.
Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS)

 PPS is a highly chemical resistant

engineering thermoplastics.
 It is made by reacting dichlorobenzene
with sodium sulphide.
 The compact symmetrical structure of
benzene rings produce a rigid, strong
and highly crystalline polymer.
 Because of presence of sulphur atoms,
PPS has excellent chemical resistance
 When its 40 % glass filled, its strength
its strength is raised to 120 Mpa.
 Applications:
chemical processing equipments
such as submersibile, centrifugal, vane
and gear pumps.
hood automobile applications such
as emission control systems, oil filled
pipes, valve fittings, couplings, etc.
POLYIMIDES (PI)

• Polyimides are also high temperature

polymers. They are made by reacting
aromatic diamines and dianhydrides.
• The structure contains an imide group.
• The presence of ring structure in the
mer causes chain stiffering and reduces
processability.

• Have excellent mechanical properties,

high temperature resistance.
• Applications:
- films are used for circuit board where
operating temp. are high.
- in resin form, they are used as
adhesive.
- composite with polyimide matrix are
used in space shuttle applications.
Polyamide-imide (PAI)
 PAI high temp. high strength polymers
 They are formed by condensation
between trimetallic anhydrides and
various diamines.
 Chemical structure has the combination of
nitrogen bond of a polyamide and the ring
structure of polyimide.
 They have high strength and high
operating temp.
 They are costly polymers
 Applications:
- Valves made from PAI are used in hot
water systems
- Hood plastic parts of automobile &
high tepm. Electrical applications.
PEEK
UREA
PHENOL