COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Communication skill is the ability to convey information in an effective,

efficient and coherent manner.
It is more than just words; it tells the following during a discourse:
•How you say it- including the tone of your voice
•When you say it- the situation/time (during an argument, special occasion)
•Why you say it- the intention behind the message
•Your body language- including facial expressions, gestures and postures
Communication skills also cover the signals you give people without even
realizing it. Body language says a lot about you. To be a great communicator
you need to be aware of how your body language comes across, not just in
job interviews but in day-to-day life and work situations.

However, you can grow your communication skills over time.

To be a good communicator you need to get across your ideas and opinions
well, but also listen to others and take their ideas into.
THE FOUR ESSENTIAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
 HOW TO BECOME A GREAT COMMUNICATOR

•From writing great emails or blogs on social media; to delivering

fantastic presentations, take the time to practice, especially in the areas
you’re less confident in.

•Try asking a friend, teacher, or family member how well they think you
communicate in different ways like writing, speaking, body language,
etc. and if they have any pointers to help you improve.

•Remember, some of the best communicators weren’t naturally great at

communicating but they took the time to learn and build their skills.
You can do that too.
 Types of Communication Skills
 Para-Communication Skills.
This type of communication includes communicating with the divine and
with spirits in the form of incantations and rituals.
 
Interpersonal Communication Skills. This is direct, face-to-face
communication that occurs between two persons. It is essentially a
dialogue or a conversation between two or more people. This type of
communication involves maximum interaction through words and
gestures.

Non-verbal Communication Skills. This includes aspects such as body

language, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, etc., which also
become a part of the communicating process; as well as the written and
typed modes of communications.
No matter what the different types of communication skills are,
communicating is an ever-continuing process that is going on all the time.
It is as important to human life as is day-to-day existence
 Stages of Communication
We can communicate effectively when we understand the stages of
communication:
The Phatic Stage. This is the initial stage, which determines the course of the
conversation. This begins with the greetings and accompanying gestures
such as eye contact, the smile, etc. There is usually no intention, but it’s just
the setting for the next level of the conversation.
The Personal Stage. This is the second stage in which the individuals bring
more personal things into the conversation. Here, one person is ready to let
the other(s) involve in the conversation by including more personal aspects
and the hesitation decreases.
The Intimate Stage. This stage is mainly meant for conversations between
friends, family and relatives, where those involved in the conversation share
a higher level of intimacy with each other. This stage of communicating
usually takes opening one's heart and sharing rather intimate details, which
is not a part of professional conversations. 
Professional Conversation doesn’t usually reach this stage.
KEY COMMUNICATION ELEMENT
There are three key elements in the communication process are:
• You
• Your audience
• Your message
The YOU brings professional experience and education and training to
the communication process. For in stance, you have earned credibility
with your employees, your board members, the public, the media, and
your fellow workers these are all the yardsticks to determine personal
status.
AUDIENCE: In order to be an effective communicator, you need to
know who your audience is. If your audience is a mechanic crew, then
you can talk effectively about items` of that aspect. If your audience is
the public or your board members, you need to switch from
mechanical jargon to "Standard English." The principles of effective
interpersonal communication are the same whether your "audience" is
one person, ten people, or one thousand.
The MESSAGE element is equally important. What you want to say?, and
what is the best way to communicate the message? Is very crucial.
There is a basic rule used by journalists for writing a newspaper story
that can help you focus on your message. A well-written story should
contain the ‘who, what, when, where, why, and how’ of the story in the
first paragraph or two. If it does not, it will not hold the attention of
the audience.
The same principle applies to your message in the process of
interpersonal communication. If you do not let your audience know
quickly the ‘who, what, when, where, why, and how of your message,
you risk them losing interest, being inattentive, and tuning out.
 PARTS OF SPEECH

Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and

Interjection. 
The part of speech indicates how the word functions in meaning as well as
grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more
than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. 
 NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
Examples: man... Fourah Bay College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often
used with an article (the, a, an).  
Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a
noun can be a subject, direct object, indirect object, subject
complement, or object of a preposition.
The example below clearly depicts the statement above:

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and

then she quickly disappeared.
 FUNCTIONS OF NOUN

THE SUBJECT of a verb.

Examples:
Mr. Ram leads the team. 
“Mr. Ram" is the subject of the verb ‘leads’. 

DIRECT or INDIRECT OBJECT of a verb.

Examples:
I took the book. 
“Book" is the direct object of the verb ‘took’. 
The Government will take the decision. 
“The decision" is the direct object of the verb ‘will take’. 

THE OBJECT OF PREPOSITION.

Examples:
I saw him in his office. 
“Office" is the object of preposition ‘in’. 
The girl returns from school. 
“School" is the object of preposition ‘from’. 
A noun can function as a descriptive of another noun or a pronoun - an
(Apposition) 

That means that the noun can be in apposition with another noun.
The word “apposition" means “placed side by side" Or “placed parallel to" 

Examples:

I, the president of this association, will take the decision. 

“The President" is in apposition with ‘I’. 

Mr. Ram, the captain, scored only fifty points. 

“The captain" is in apposition with ‘Mr. Ram’. 
 
 Examples of Noun ‘s Function in a sentence

1. The office is closed. 

Here, the noun “office" is used as the subject. 

2. My friend is the manager of this company. 

Here the noun “manager" is used as the object. 

3. Pickwick-papers, a novel, was written by Charles Dickens. 

Here the noun “novel" has been used in apposition With Pickwick-
papers. 

4. Mr.Sheriff, the ex-president of Mali, is a fine gentleman. 

The noun-phrase “the ex-president of Mali has been used in apposition
with Mr.Sheriff. 

5. I met your friend yesterday. 

The noun “your friend" has been used as “object" of the verb “met". 
.  PRONOUN

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

She... we... they... it
A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific noun, which is called its
antecedent. 
In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is the girl. 
Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific
persons or things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership;
reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative
pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns
identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
Example:
The young girl brought  him a very long letter from the teacher, and
then she quickly disappeared.
 TYPES OF PRONOUNS AND EXAMPLES
Possessive Reflexive
mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, ours myself, yourself, themselves, ourselves

Relative Demonstrative
that, which, who, whom, this, that, these, those
where, when
Reciprocal Personal
Each other, one another I, Me, Mine , you, yours, he,
she it
Indefinite
anything, any body, some one, something,
none, somebody,
 PERSONAL PRONOUN- SUBJECTIVE CASE

Person Singular Plural

First Person I We
Second person You You
Third Person He/She/It They

PERSONAL PRONOUN-OBJECTIVE CASE

Person Singular Plural

First Person Me Us
Second person You You
Third Person Him/Her/It Them

The distinction between the 2 cases relates to how they can be used in
sentences. For instance,
John got a new job – Sentence case
He got a new job- Third person pronoun subjective case
But HE cannot replaced JOHN in the sentence: I gave John a new job.
Here we have to use the objective form: I gave him a new job
 VERB- Definition and Types

 A verb expresses action or state of being.

jump... is... write... become, happy
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. 
There is a main verb and sometimes one or more helping verbs.
("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.)
 A verb must agree with its subject in number
(both are singular or both are plural). 
Verbs also take different forms to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher.
An action verb is a word that expresses an action that the subject of a
sentence does, did in the past, or will do in the future. Remember that every
sentence must have both a subject and a verb to be complete.
Examples of action verbs are:
Run; jump; go; think; do; live; study
Note that action verbs include not just verbs that are truly action-packed.
They include words like 'think' and 'decide' and other actions that aren't
actually visible. For example, in the sentence, Miriam leapt over the couch,
the subject 'Miriam' is performing the action of the verb 'leapt.'
A linking verb is quite different from an action verb
in that it doesn't actually express action.
Instead, it connects a subject to the other words in a sentence
that describe it or that provide additional information.

Here are some examples of common linking verbs:

appear;
The verb to be (including am, is, are, was, and were);
become; feel; get
look;
seem;
smell;
sound;
taste etc
Linking verbs quite literally do what the name suggests:
They link the subject of a sentence to additional words that tell more
about the subject. 
 VERB: TENSES
In English there are twelve tenses . Each one is characterized by its tense
(past, present, or future) and its aspect (simple, continuous, perfect, or
perfect continuous).
Native speakers can quickly grasp correct tenses from a sentence. English
as Second Language (ESL) learners; have a much harder time to do
so. However, everyone can benefit from understanding what makes each
tense unique.
The way to think about these tenses is that they are the point in time from
which an action is measured. The action might take longer, and its actual
timing may even surprise you, but the tense make sense from the
perspective of the speaker.
For instance, if you say “I have been studying guitar” (present perfect
continuous), then the action clearly happened in the past, but it is being
measured in relation to the present moment. It may even spill over in the
present, as the speaker is likely still studying the guitar.
Similarly, if you say “I am leaving soon” (present continuous) you are using
the present tense, even though you are describing an action that will take
place in the future.
In other words, the concept of tense is flexible, so be prepared for some odd
uses.
PAST TENSE PRESENT TENSE FUTURE TENSE

PAST SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE FUTURE SIMPLE

I walked I walk I will walk

PAST CONTINOUS PRESENT CONTINOUS FUTURE CONTINOUS

I was walking I am walking I will be walking

PAST PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT

I had walked I have walked I will have walked

PAST PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT

CONTINOUS CONTINOUS CONTINOUS
I had been walking I have been walking I will have been walking
 Verb Agreement

Grammar is not as static like science as is typically assumed,

however, there are 20 rules of subject verb agreement that attempt
to objectify part of the English language form.

Most of the concepts of subject verb agreement are straightforward,

yet some aspects of singular and plural usage in English grammar
are more complicated.

Consider the second person plural pronoun "y'all" as it's used in the
southern American dialect, for example.
Addressing a group of people in the second person using standard

English is inefficient and requires more words.

A sentence like "I want to talk to all of you sitting at the table" in
standard English can be accomplished quite simply in southern
American dialect with the sentence "I want to talk to y'all."
1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number.
This is the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the concept.
In these examples the subject is underlined and the verb is in italics
The dog growls when he is angry. The dogs growl when they are angry.
2. Don't get confused by the words that come between the subject and
verb; they do not affect agreement.
The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good.
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb
usually do not affect agreement.
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.
4. When sentences start with "there" or "here,"
the subject will always be placed after the verb,
so care needs to be taken to identify it correctly.
There is a problem with the balance sheet.
Here are the papers you requested.
5. Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions.
Make sure you accurately identify the subject before deciding
on the proper verb form to use.
Where are the pieces of this puzzle?
6. If two subjects are joined by "and," they typically require
a plural verb form.
The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon.
7. The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by "and“
refer to the same person or thing.
Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.
8. If one of the words "each," "every," or "no"
comes before the subject, the verb is singular.
No smoking or drinking is allowed. Every man and woman is
 required to check in.
9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words
"or," "nor," "neither/nor," "either/or," and "not only/but also"
the verb is singular.
Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.
10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into
the decision of plural or singular verb forms is when noun
and pronoun subjects like "some," "half," "none," "more," or "all"
are followed by a prepositional phrase. In these sentences,
the objectof the preposition determines the form of the verb.
All of the chicken is gone. All of the chickens are gone.
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement or time.
Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.
12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words
 "or," "nor," "neither/nor," "either/or," and "not only/but also"the verb is
plural.
Dogs and cats are both available at the pound.
13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected by
the words
 "or," "nor," "neither/nor," "either/or," and "not only/but also",
you use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the verb.
Either the bears or the lion has escaped from the zoo. 
Neither the lion nor the bears have escaped from the zoo.
14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs. *
Everybody wants to be loved.
15. * Except for the pronouns "few," "many," "several," "both," "all," and
"some" that always take the plural form.
Few were left alive after the flood.
16. If two infinitives are separated by "and" they take the plural form of the
verb.
To walk and to chew gum require great skill.
17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence,
they take the singular form of the verb; but, when they are linked by
"and," they take the plural form.
Standing in the water was a bad idea. Swimming in the ocean and 
playing drums are my hobbies.
18. Collective nouns like "herd," "senate," "class," and "crowd,"
usually take a singular verb form.
The herd is stampeding.
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular
and take a singular verb.
The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.
20. Final Rule - Remember, only the subject affects the verb!
 ADJECTIVES

One of the most important components of a sentence is the adjective.

This part of speech is so common that people use it almost automatically,
both in speech and in writing.
An adjective is a part of speech which describes, identifies, or quantifies a
noun or a pronoun. So basically, the main function of an adjective is to
modify a noun or a pronoun so that it will become more specific and
interesting. Instead of just one word, a group of words with a subject and
a verb, can also function as an adjective. When this happens, the group of
words is called an adjective clause.
For example:
For example: My brother, who is much older than I am, is an astronaut.
In the example above, the underlined clause modifies the noun ”brother.”
But what if the group of words doesn’t have a subject and a verb? What do
you think the resulting group of words will be called?
If you think it’s called an adjective phrase, you are right. As you might
recall, phrases and clauses are both groups of words and the main
difference is that clauses have subjects and verbs, while phrases don’t.
For example: She is prettier than you.
1. Descriptive Adjectives
Among the different kinds of adjectives,
descriptive adjectives are probably the most common ones.
They simply say something about the quality or the kind of the noun
or pronoun they’re referring to.
Examples:
Erika is witty.
She is tired.
Adrian’s reflexes are amazing.
2. Adjectives of Number or Adjectives of Quantity
As the name suggests, this kind of adjective answers the question,
“How many?” or “How much?”
Examples:
Twenty-one students failed the exam.
The plants need more water.
3. Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives point out pronouns and nouns,
and always come before the words they are referring to.
Examples:
I used to buy this kind of shirts.
When the old man tripped over that wire, he dropped a whole
bag of groceries.
4. Possessive Adjectives
Obviously, this kind of adjectives shows ownership or possession. Aside
from that, possessive adjectives always come before the noun.
Examples: 
I can’t answer my seatwork because I don’t have a calculator.
Trisha sold his dog.
5. Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives ask questions and are always followed by a noun.
Examples:
What movie are you watching?
Which plants should be placed over here?

The Degrees of Adjectives

There are only three degrees or levels of adjectives (also known as degrees
of comparison) namely, positive, comparative, and superlative. When you
talk about or describe only a single person, place, or thing, you should use
the positive degree.
Examples:
She is a beautiful lady.
It was a memorable trip.
 Three Degrees of Adjectives
1. The Positive Degree
The positive degree of an adjective makes no comparison.
Examples:
A tall building.
She runs fast.
This is a beautiful car.
2. The Comparative Degree 
The comparative degree compares two people, things, actives or qualities.
Examples:
A taller building than this one.
She runs faster than I do.
This car is more beautiful than your.
3. The Superlative Degree 
The superlative degree compares a person, thing, activity
or quality with the group.
Examples:
The tallest building in the town.
She is the fastest runner among the students.
This is the most beautiful car I have ever seen.
Common Mistakes With Comparisons 

1. Avoid making a double comparison.

After dinner, the orchestra began playing a series of more livelier melodies. 
(Incorrect)
After dinner, the orchestra began playing a series of more lively melodies.
 (Correct)
After dinner, the orchestra began playing a series of livelier melodies. 
(Correct)
2. Some adjectives are “absolute” and cannot be compared.
“ Absolute” Adjectives: first, last, equal and unique are adjective which
cannot be compared.
This is a unique bike. (Correct)
This is a unique than your. (Incorrect)
3. Make sure that the items being compared are truly comparable.
If not, reword as necessary.
The tropical fish found in the Caribbean are less colorful and varied
 than the South Pacific.  (Incorrect)
The tropical fish found in the Caribbean are less colorful and varied 
than the fish found in the South Pacific.(Correct)
An adverb is a word that is used to change or qualify the meaning
of an adjective, a verb, a clause, another adverb,
or any other type of word or phrase with the exception of determiners
and adjectives that directly modify nouns.
Adverbs normally carry out these functions by answering questions such as:
When? She always arrives early.
How? He drives carefully.
Where? They go everywhere together.
In what way? She eats slowly.
To what extent? It is terribly hot.
Adverbs can always be used to modify verbs.
Notice that the second of these two sentences is much more interesting
simply because it contains an adverb:
The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running,
but you don’t really know much more about the scene.)
The dog ran excitedly.
(You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail, panting happily,
and looking glad to see its owner.
You can paint a much more interesting picture in your head when
you know how or why the dog is running.)
Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters “-ly” to adjectives.
This makes it very easy to identify adverbs in sentences.
There are many exceptions to this rule; everywhere, nowhere, and upstairs
are a few examples.
An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning
it conveys.
For example:
He plays tennis well.
(He knows how to play tennis and sometimes he wins.)
He plays tennis extremely well.
(He knows how to play tennis so well that he wins often.)
Examples of Adverbs
As you read each of the following adverb examples, note that the adverbs
have been italicized for easy identification. Consider how replacing
the existing adverbs with different ones would change the meaning of each
sentence.
She was walking rapidly.
The kids love playing together in the sandbox.
Please come inside now.
His jokes are always very funny.
You don’t really care, do you?
Adverbs Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about
how adverbs work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
The driver stopped the bus _______________.
Financially
Exactly
Abruptly
Answer: C. The driver stopped the bus abruptly.
During autumn, colorful leaves can be seen falling ______________ from trees.
Everywhere
Very
Gently
PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are words which begin prepositional phrases.

A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing a preposition, a noun
 or pronoun object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object.
A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object.
A preposition is also a word that explains the time, space or logical
relationship between the other parts of the sentence. In other words, it
links all the other words together, so the reader can understand how the
pieces of the sentence fit.
Examples:
About below excepting off toward above beneath for on
Under across beside(s) from onto underneath after
at  despite into since within because of down
Like through without before during near throughout
with regard to behind except of
To with respect to against beyond in front of outside
Up along but inside over upon
Among by in spite of past up to
Around concerning instead of
Regarding with
Preposition Rules
There are two major rules when it comes to the use of prepositions.
The first major rule deals with preposition choice.
Certain prepositions must follow certain words,
and the correct preposition must be used to make relationships between
words in the sentences clear.
The second major rule deals with the prepositions place in the sentence.
Prepositions must be followed by nouns, and prepositions can only go on
the end of the sentence in certain situations.
Prepositions In the Context of Sentences
Prepositions must always be followed by a noun or pronoun.
That noun is called the object of the preposition.
A verb can't be the object of a preposition.
The bone was for the dog.
This is correct- the preposition for is followed by the noun "dog."
The bone was for walked. This is not correct.
The preposition for is followed by a verb "walked.“
Walked can't be the object of a preposition.
This rule may seem confusing at first, because you may have seen words
that look like verbs following the preposition to in sentences; for example:
I like to ski. These boots are for skiing.
However, in these examples, "ski" and "skiing" are not actually
acting as verbs.
In the first example, to ski is part of the infinitive.
An infinitive is NOT a verb. An infinitive occurs when a verb is used as a
noun,
adjective, or adverb. Here, to ski is a THING that the person likes doing,
not an action that they are doing. It is a verbal noun.
In the second example, skiing is a gerund. Like an infinitive,
a gerund is NOT a verb, but is instead a noun, adjective or adverb.
Here, skiing is a THING that the boots are for.
No one in this sentence is doing the action of skiing.
Preposition Choice
Determining the correct preposition to use can be a tricky proposition. This
can be especially difficult when dealing with idioms - expressions in the
English language that don't necessarily make sense when taken literally.
Idiomatic expressions are expressions you just have to memorize, and when
errors are made, they are almost always preposition errors.
Here are some examples of idioms, along with the correct prepositions:
Able to
Capable of Preoccupied with
Concerned by Prohibited from
Each of the italicized words are the only acceptable prepositions to follow
these words. It would not be grammatically correct to say "able with“
or "capable to“
Using Prepositions at the End of Sentences
Because prepositions must be followed by a noun and have an object,
they usually shouldn't be used at the end of a sentence.
For example, it is not correct to say:
The table is where I put my books on.
However, there are certain circumstances where it is acceptable to 
end a sentence with a preposition.
These exceptions exist where the preposition is not extraneous.
In other words, the preposition needs to be there, and if it wasn't,
the meaning of the sentence would change.
In the above example, "The table is where I put my books on"
the use of the preposition "on" isn't necessary. We could take the "on"
out of the sentence and the meaning would be the same.
So, the use of the preposition was extraneous or unnecessary and we don't
need it. However, here is an example where it is perfectly acceptable to use a
preposition to end a sentence:
"I turned the TV on.“ If you removed the "on" from the end of this sentence,
it would change the meaning. Instead of switching on the set, you would be
saying that you turned the TV itself.
 CONJUNCTION
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a “joiner” for words, phrases,
or clauses in a particular sentence.
It links these words or groups of words together,
in such a way that certain relationships among these different parts of the
sentence will be established, and the thoughts that all of these convey will
be connected.
Different Types of Conjunctions
In the English language, conjunctions come in three basic types:
the coordinating conjunctions, the subordinating conjunctions, and
the correlative conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunction
Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common
one. The main function of coordinating conjunctions is to join words,
phrases, and clauses together, which are usually grammatically equal. Aside
from that, this type of conjunctions is placed in between the words or
groups of words that it links together, and not at the beginning or at the
end.
Examples: Pizza and burgers are my favorite snacks.
In the sample sentence above, the underlined word serves as a coordinating
conjunction that links two words together (pizza + burgers).
The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the underground lagoon.
The example above shows how coordinating conjunctions can join together
two (or more) phrases. The coordinating conjunction “or” in the sentence
above links “in the cave” and “in the underground lagoon.”
What those girls say and what they actually do are completely different.
In this sentence, you’ll see how the same coordinating conjunction ”and”
from the first sample sentence can be used to link clauses together
(“what those girls say” and “what they actually do”), instead of just single words.
How to Punctuate Coordinating Conjunctions
In joining two words, phrases, or dependent clauses together, a comma is
not required before the coordinating conjunction.
Examples:
aliens and predators
by the beach or on the hill
what you see and what you get
If, on the other hand, you are linking more than two words, phrases,
and dependent clauses together, a series of commas must be placed
in between the distinct elements.
Examples:
spiders, snakes, and scorpions
in the bedroom, in the garage, or at the garden
Lastly, for joining together two independent clauses, a comma must be
used before placing the coordinating conjunction.
. Coordinating Conjunction
Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common one.
The main function of coordinating conjunctions is to join words, phrases,
and clauses together, which are usually grammatically equal.
Aside from that, this type of conjunctions is placed in between the words or
groups of words that it links together, and not at the beginning or at the end.
Examples: Pizza and burgers are my favorite snacks.
In the sample sentence above, the underlined word serves as a coordinating
conjunction that links two words together (pizza + burgers).
The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the underground lagoon.
The example above shows how coordinating conjunctions can join
together two (or more) phrases.
The coordinating conjunction “or” in the sentence above links “in the cave”
and “in the underground lagoon.”
What those girls say and what they actually do are completely different.
In this sentence, you’ll see how the same coordinating conjunction ”and”
from the first sample sentence can be used to link clauses together
(“what those girls say” and “what they actually do”), instead of just single words.
How to Punctuate Coordinating Conjunctions
In joining two words, phrases, or dependent clauses together, a comma is
not required before the coordinating conjunction.
Examples:
aliens and predators
by the beach or on the hill
what you see and what you get
If, on the other hand, you are linking more than two words, phrases, and
dependent clauses together, a series of commas must be placed in between
the distinct elements.
Examples:
spiders, snakes, and scorpions
in the bedroom, in the garage, or at the garden
Lastly, for joining together two independent clauses, a comma must be used
before placing the coordinating conjunction.
Examples:
Cassandra fell asleep, so Joaquin just went home.
I don’t really like spaghetti, but I can eat lasagna any day.
Subordinating Conjunction
This type of conjunctions is used in linking two clauses together.
Aside from the fact that they introduce a dependent clause,
subordinating conjunctions also describe the relationship between the
dependent clause and the independent clause in the sentence.
List of Common Subordinating Conjunctions:
While as soon as although before even if because no matter how
Whether Wherever when until after as if how if provided in that once
Supposing While unless in case as far as now that as so that though &
since
Sample Sentences:
It is so cold outside, so I brought you a jacket.
Because it is so cold outside, I brought you a jacket.
By looking at the sentences above, you will easily notice that a subordinating
conjunction can be found either at the beginning of the sentence or
between the clauses that it links together.
Aside from that, a comma should also be placed in between the two clauses
(independent clause and dependent clause) of the sentence.
Correlative Conjunction
The correlative conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions which are used
to join equal sentence elements together.
List of Common Correlative Conjunctions:
either… or
neither… nor
not only… but also
both… and
whether… or
so… as

Conjunctions are very essential in speech and in writing.

They improve the cohesion between the different parts of the text and
enable you to construct long sentences without sounding awkward.
Although the concept of conjunctions may seem too simple, you should
still take time and make sure that you place the punctuations properly,
choose the appropriate conjunctions, and see to it that you adhere
to the standard rules of grammar.
 INTERJECTIONS

The interjection is a part of speech which is more commonly used in informal

language than in formal writing or speech.
An interjection  can be defined as a part of speech that shows the emotion
or feeling expressed by the speaker.
These words or phrases can stand alone or be placed before or after a
sentence. Many times an interjection is followed by a punctuation mark,
often an exclamation point.
Basically, the function of interjections is to express emotions or sudden
bursts of feelings.
They can express a wide variety of emotions such as: excitement, joy,
surprise, or disbelief, anxiety, etc… 
 EXAMPLES OF INTERJECTIONS
Here are some interjections with an accompanying sentence:
Ahh, that feels wonderful.
Alas! I'm lost in the wilderness.
Bah! That was a total waste of time.
Bless you, I couldn't have done it without you.
It's time for me to go. Cheerio!
Congrats! You finally got your Master's degree.
Crikey! Do you ever think before you speak?
Phew! Are you starting to get a cold?
Good grief! Why are you wearing shorts in the winter?
Grrr! I'm going to get back at him for that.
Humph, he probably cheated to make such good grades.
Oh dear! I don't know what to do about this mess.
Yippy! Let's get moving.
Shoot! I forgot my brother's birthday.
Boo! That was a stupid thing to do!
Wow! That is a beautiful ball gown.
 COMMON CONFUSIONS IN PARTS OF SPEECH
In the sample sentences below, incorrect items are in italic font.  
Correct sentences come with items in bold font.
Noun/verb confusion
A noun defines or names something. A verb expresses an action,
something that happens or occurs, or a mode of being. Some nouns and
verbs share the same form (e.g project, record) but usually they are
different.
Many nouns end in 'tion' or 'cion', 'ment' or 'ing'. 
Verb forms vary according mainly to person, number and tense; they can
also be active or passive.
 
Examples of noun/verb confusion:
 The groups were able to identity  the most serious academic problem
(Incorrect use of noun: should be the verb form, identify)
 At present, there is a lot of compete for good jobs.
(Incorrect use of verb: should be the noun form, competition)
Common confusions of nouns and verbs include:

NOUN VVERB

Analysis Analyse

Breath Breathe

Choice Choose

Complaint Complain

Entry Enter

Relaxation Relax

Service Serve

Success Succeed
Noun/adjective confusion
A noun defines or names something.
An adjective qualifies or tells us more about a noun or pronoun:
it can be regular, comparative or superlative.
In a sentence, the qualifying adjective usually comes directly before the
noun or noun phrase.

Examples of noun/adjective confusion:

As the members were aged from 15 to 55, it was a difficulty task to

design a game to suit everyone
(Incorrect use of noun: should be the adjectival form, difficult)
 The company demonstrated a great deal of successful in developing
client relationships
(Incorrect use of adjective: should be the noun form, success)
 The important of the case was emphasised
(Incorrect use of adjective: should be the noun form, importance)
Adjective/adverb confusion
An adjective is a word that qualifies or tells us more about a noun or
pronoun.
An adverb is a word that qualifies or tells us more about a verb
(he studies diligently), or sometimes an adjective (an extremely expensive
suit)
or another adverb (she walked very slowly).
Many adverbs end in 'ly'.
 
Examples of adjective/adverb confusion:
 A good business person should be proactively
 (Incorrect use of adverb: should be the adjectival form, proactive.)
 She ready agreed to give her presentation
(Incorrect use of adjective: should be the adverbial form, readily.)
 
Confusion with gerund or other noun forms
Nouns based on verbs can end in either 'ing' (the gerund) or another ending
such as 'tion' or 'ment'.
If there is an object in the sentence, the gerund form is usually correct.
 
Examples of gerund and other noun form confusion.
Development a high quality product is of paramount importance .
 Developing a high quality product is of paramount importance.
 Manufacture  clothing in China is very cost effective.
 Manufacturing clothing in China is very cost effective.
 
If there is no object in the sentence, the alternative to the gerund is usually
used.
 
 Developing  is of paramount importance.
 Development is of paramount importance.
 
Confusion with different forms of same root noun
Nouns may have different forms, usually with slightly different meanings,
which can be confusing.
 She decided to move into a new flat to start a new living .
She decided to move into a new flat to start a new life.
(The first sentence has a gerund meaning ' means of earning' or 'way of life‘
 instead of the correct noun form meaning 'existence'.)
Confusion with pronoun form
A pronoun is an identifying word used instead of a noun. Personal
pronouns, in English, are I, you, he/she/it, we, you (plural),
and they. Possessive pronouns are my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Personal
and possessive pronouns are sometimes confused. If a pronoun refers to a
noun used previously, singular/plural agreement may be incorrect.
 
Examples of incorrect pronoun forms:
 All employees have been notified that their  are to be made redundant.
 All employees have been notified that they are to be made redundant.
 The MD has seen the contracts and he wants it substantially altered.
 The MD has seen the contracts and he wants them substantially altered.
 
Confusion with adjective form
a)  adjectives ending in ED and ING
Some adjectives are actually participles (verb forms with -ing and -
ed endings).
Generally, the -ed ending means that the noun so described has a passive
role: you are confused by something (the subject matter, the way it is
presented etc). 
The -ed  ending modifiers are often accompanied by prepositions and often
describe the human reaction to something.
The -ing ending means that the noun described has a more active role: if the
help pages do not seem to clarify the point, they are confusing 
(to you and others).
 e.g.     I am confused about the new fire drill arrangements.
 A number of confusing messages were left by the I.T. Department.
 My parents were disappointed by my poor achievement.
 The rainy weather was disappointing.
 That was a very satisfying meal.
 The review panel were very satisfied with the new online course.
 The Committee are all excited about the new project.
 The new project is very exciting.
 I am never bored in my free time.
 My free time is never boring.
b) Omission of 'd' in adjectives ending in 'ed'
Hong Kong writers sometimes have a tendency to make this mistake:
 
e.g.   Our Company uses the most advance technology.
Our Company uses the most advanced technology
Detail information is required from candidates.
Detailed information is required from candidates.
 PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation marks are symbols that are used to aid the clarity and
comprehension of written language.
Some common punctuation marks are the period, comma, question mark,
exclamation point, apostrophe, quotation mark and hyphen.
An apostrophe is used as a substitute for a missing letter or letters in a word
(as in the contraction cannot = can't), to show the possessive case (Jane's
room), and in the plural of letters, some numbers and abbreviations.
Note: groups of years no longer require an apostrophe (for example, the
1950s or the 90s).
I can't see the cat's tail.
Dot your i's and cross your t's.
100's of years.

Colon
:
A colon is used before a list or quote.
A colon is used to separate hours and minutes.
A colon is used to separate elements of a mathematical ratio.
There are many punctuation marks: period, comma, colon, and others.
The time is 2:15.
The ratio of girls to boys is 3:2.
A comma is used to separate phrases or items in a list.
She bought milk, eggs, and bread.
A dash is used to separate parts of a sentence. —
The dash is also known as an "em dash" because it is the length of a printed
letter m — it is longer than a hyphen.
An ellipsis (three dots) indicates that part of the text has been intentionally
been left out. ...
0, 2, 4, ... , 100
An exclamation point is used to show excitement or emphasis. !
It is cold!
A hyphen is used between parts of a compound word or name.
It is also used to split a word by syllables to fit in a line of text. -
The sixteen-year-old girl is a full-time student.
Parentheses are curved lines used to separate explanations or qualifying
statements within a sentence(each one of the curved lines is called a parenthesi
The part in the parentheses is called a parenthetical remark. ( )
This sentence(like others on this page) contains a parenthetical remark.
A period is used to note the end of a declarative sentence. .
I see the house.
A question mark is used at the end of a question. ?
When are we going?
Quotation marks are used at the beginning and end of a phrase to show
that it is being written exactly as it was originally said or written. "
She said, "Let's eat."
A semicolon separates two independent clauses in a compound
sentence. ;
A semicolon is also used to separate items in a series
(where commas are already in use).
Class was canceled today; Mr. Smith was home sick.
Relatives at the reunion included my older brother, Bob; my cousin, Art;
and my great-aunt, Mattie.
 BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement
Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of
that
particular sentence. 
According to the rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be
quite complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a
sentence are discussed here.
The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject  and predicate.
SUBJECT
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing
the action of the sentence. 
The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. 
The simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun and can include
modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The man . . .
PREDICATE
The predicate expresses action or state of being within the sentence. 
The simple predicate contains the verb and can also contain modifying
words, phrases, or clauses.
The man /  builds a house.
The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any
complete sentence. In addition, there are other elements, contained within
the subject or predicate, that add meaning or detail.
These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject
complement.
All of these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple,
compound, complex, or compound/complex sentences.
DIRECT OBJECT
The direct object receives the action of the sentence. 
The direct object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The man builds a house. 
The man builds it.
INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence
is being done. The indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The man builds his family a house. 
The man builds them a house.
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore
is usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective. 
Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb within the sentence
(often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).
The man is a good father. (father = noun which renames the subject)
The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)
Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts of
a sentence, a noun can function within a sentence as subject, direct object,
indirect object, object of a preposition, or subject complement.
 TYPES OF SENTENCES
Every sentence is one of the following types:
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound/Complex
In order to vary your writing, you want to be able to construct sentences of
each kind. To master these four types, though, you really only need to master
two things: independent and dependent clauses.
This is because the four types of sentences are really only four different ways
to combine independent and dependent clauses.
(Let's review: independent clauses are essentially simple, complete sentences.
They can stand alone or be combined with other independent clauses.
Dependent clauses are unfinished thoughts that cannot stand alone;
must be joined to independent clauses to make complete sense.)
The simple sentence
Simple sentences follow a subject-verb format - it contains only one
independent clause:
Justin dropped his Agricultural Economics class.
A simple sentence is not necessarily short or simple. It can be long and
involved, with many parts and compound elements.
But if there is only one independent clause, it is, nevertheless, a simple
Sentence.
The following example has a single independent clause with a single subject
(Justin) and a compound verb (gulped, swallowed, groaned, and decided):
Justin gulped down his fourth cup of coffee, swallowed a Tylenol for his
pounding headache, groaned, and decided he would have to drop his
Agricultural Economics class.
The compound sentence
When you join two simple sentences properly, you get a compound sentence.
Conversely, a compound sentence can be broken into two complete
sentences, each with its own subject and its own verb. That is it has more
than one subject or verb.
You can join simple sentences to create compound sentences either of
two ways:
•With a semicolon
•With a comma and coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
 For example, the following pairs of independent clauses can be joined
either way:
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays;
Environmental Horticulture conflicted with his schedule.
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays,
but Environmental Horticulture conflicted with his schedule.
(Be aware that if you join two simple sentences improperly, you do not get a
compound sentence; you get a run-on, most likely either a comma splice
or a fused sentence.
The complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains both a dependent and a
subordinating clause.
In the following example, both clauses contain a subject and a verb, but the
dependent clause has, in addition, the dependent-making words even
though.
If you start the sentence with the dependent-making words
(or subordinating conjunction), place a comma between the clauses.
On the other hand, if you start with the independent clause and place
the dependent-making words in the middle of the sentence,
do not use a comma:
Even though Eva took Turf Management just to fill out her schedule,
she found it unexpectedly interesting.
Eva found Turf Management unexpectedly interesting even though she took it
just to fill out her schedule.
The compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence combines at least two independent clauses
and at least one dependent clause.
The punctuation rules remain the same:
the two simple sentences are joined by one of the two methods described
above, for complex sentence and the dependent clause is punctuated (or not)
depending on whether it precedes or follows an independent clause.
In the following example, the dependent-making word signaling the
beginning of the dependent clause is while:
Homer was already in class, and Eva was in the lab while Justin was sleeping
off his headache.
While Justin was sleeping off his headache, Homer was already in class,
and Eva was in the lab.
Homer was already in class while Justin slept off his headache; Eva was in the
lab.

Exercises: Identify the following as S=Simple, Com=Compound,

CX=Complex, or CC=Compound-Complex
1. The summer has been extremely hot, but I think it’s getting colder now.
2. Because my car has no air conditioning, I’ve been taking the bus.
3. When winter comes, we’ll all be complaining about the cold, and with my
luck, my heater will break.
4. I would really love to buy a new car, maybe a Lexus.
5. In the next five years, I will have enough money to pay off my debt.
6. Fred was concerned about his daughter’s cough; however, it turned out to
be nothing serious.
7. Her alarm didn’t go off this morning because she sets it for P.M. instead of
AM.
 
 NOTE TAKING SKILLS

What your notes should contain

All good notes should contain:
source information (title, author, date etc)
headings to help you identify the key topics
key points, examples, names, new ideas
triggers to make your notes more memorable – such as mnemonics,
colour or drawings
further reading and ideas to follow up later.
Consider developing a system of symbols and abbreviations to help you
speed up your note taking. Common abbreviations in notes include
“poss.”
for possibly, “esp.” for “especially”, and “govt.” for government,
but you can create a list that works for you.
Sometimes poor note taking can lead to unintentional plagiarism.
To help avoid this you should make quotes, paraphrases and summaries
look different from your own ideas in your notes.
You could use quotation marks or square brackets, or highlight other
people’s ideas in a different colour.
Tips for making notes from lectures
Be ready to listen actively during a lecture. Pay particular attention at the
beginning and end of lectures, as this is where the lecturer will set out and
then summarize the main points.
Don't try to write everything that is said. Listen for key words and phrases,
like “there are three main causes of…” or “on the other hand…”
to help you identify key ideas. Listen out for references to other
sources that you may wish to follow up.
Most lectures are recorded using lecture capture technology.
Watching the lecture again can help you fill in any gaps in your notes.
Tips for making notes from reading
There are three main strategies you can use when reading for university:
Scan for key information such as statistics, dates, facts and keywords
Skim the introduction, conclusion, and the beginning and end of paragraphs
to get the main idea and a general overview of the text
Read carefully, slowly and possibly repetitively to interrogate the text and
raise questions.
If you are scanning the text, highlight the text and note down the key
information and full details of the source.
Only highlight what you need. Highlighting too much is a waste of your
time as when you go back you will have no idea why you highlighted those
sections.
If you are skimming the text then you should highlight key parts and also
annotate the text. A good annotation will include keywords, ask questions,
and include related ideas and comparisons with other texts.
Use the annotations to help you make more detailed notes that summarise
the main ideas.
Critical in-depth reading requires detailed notes. You need to concentrate,
ask questions of the text and make critical comments to assess and
evaluate the ideas and evidence.
When making detailed notes you still need to be selective and ask
particular questions to help you think critically.

After you have made your notes, you need to ensure you can do something
with them. This will include creating a filing system, using clear labels, and
cross-referencing. You can also use technology to help you to organise your
notes.
After you have made your notes, you need to ensure you can do
something with them. This will include creating a filing system, using
clear labels, and cross-referencing. You can also use technology to help
you to organise your notes.
Read your notes and try to create a summary. You can then attach this
summary to your notes and handouts.
Your summary may include:
key facts
concepts, theories, ideas or arguments
some illustrative detail
information about other sources of information or ideas
questions, thoughts or criticisms.
You should also fill in details from any further reading or research, link
new information to what you already know, and discuss with others to fill
in any gaps.
If you have written notes from multiple sources for an assignment, review
and organise them to help structure your answer.
To organise your notes you should label and file your notes, whether
physically or online, and cross-reference with any handouts.
How to Prepare yourself
To take effective notes, you should prepare for the lecture or reading.
You should think about what you want to know, what the lecture or
material is about, and how it is relevant to your own work.
If you are preparing for a lecture, you can start by reading your module
handbook to find out what the lecture will be about and what the learning
outcomes are. Make sure that you familiarise yourself with new ideas,
terms or language by consulting recommended texts.
Your tutor may have recommended some preparatory reading, and
Wikipedia can also be helpful for an overview of unfamiliar topics.
Consider how the lecture material relates to your assignments and
identify the key points that you need to note down.
It might also help to review your notes from previous lectures
so you can make connections between each lecture.

If you are preparing to read texts, ask yourself what you need to get
from your reading. Do you need an overview, case studies and examples,
definitions, or ideas and evidence to support your own argument?
The purpose of your reading will influence your reading technique as
well as the way you take notes.
Set up a system to record complete bibliographic details, including:
name of the author, editor, lecturer or organisation
date of lecture, publication, or access (for websites)
title of lecture or source
page numbers where applicable
other bibliographic details you might need for a reference.
Three stages of note making
Note making doesn’t only happen when you are reading or attending
lectures. There are three stages to making effective notes: before, during,
and after.
Before: Prepare by finding out what you need to know and what the
purpose of the reading or lecture is.
During: Note down main ideas and keywords. Find techniques that work
for you.
After: Reflect and review and then organise your notes.
Many of us struggle to make notes that are meaningful when we need to
refer back to them. You need to adapt strategies that work for you to
help you take and make effective notes.
Many people still like to take notes by hand, but there are now many
applications that you can use to help take and organise your notes.
Make sure you read the reviews so you can decide what will work best
for you before you purchase any apps or software.
Some apps to consider are:
Evernote: Allows you to create, edit and organise notes, save webpages,
photograph handwritten notes and synchronise everything across your
devices.
Available on all devices.
UPAD: Available on iPad. Allows you to create visual, eye catching notes as
well as highlighting and annotating PDFs.
Notability: Available on iPad, iPhone, and iPod Touch.
You can import a wide range of documents and annotate them using
drawing and text tools. 
 
 READING
There are so many reasons why we read:
• We read to obtain information
• To learn how to do something
• To check whether a word or idea is accurate
• For recreation and pleasure etc…
For an individual to read effectively at this level, he/she must be able to
collect information from a range of text-based sources and images such
as:
• Charts, tables and graphs
• Diagrams, maps and plans
• Drawings, pictures and sketches
• Photographs and illustrations
• Signs and symbols
• Literatures, documentaries, dictionaries, etc.
The most important thing to note is to understand what you are reading.
Short paragraphs are usually quite easy to comprehend but longer works
require greater concentration, especially if you have to remember several
ideas at once.
 Effective Reading
When you look at a piece of writing, decide which of these three types of
writing category it belongs:
• Writing with a personal opinion – This is called subjective writing; it
includes fiction, personal accounts or records, advertising, publicity
and promotional materials.
• Writing with a strict purpose – This is called functional writing; it includes
reference books, directories, instructional manuals, hand- books And
technical documents.
• Writing with no personal opinion- This is called objective writing; it
includes official reports, guidance materials and research findings.
In all of these sources, one must consider why and idea or information is
written and also be able to investigate how it could be biased.
Always find out about the context, purpose and intended readership of
your sources of information and text. This will help you to understand the
writer’s intention.
Skimming and Scanning are two techniques that can help you to find
information quickly without having to read the whole text.
Both help you find the relevant information you need so you can
concentrate on reading only what is important.
SKIMMING
This is a method of reading to quickly get the general idea of the
content of a book, magazine, newspaper or report and will give you
important clues about where the information you need might be found.
The fist thing to look at when opening a book is the table of content
which is usually located right after the title. It contains the headings of
the main sections of the book which will help you find your way
through it.
However, if there is something very specific you wish to search for, the
index , found at the back of the book will be more helpful.
Generally, skimming will help you get the an impression of a text and
help you find out more about it. But it doesn’t help you to establish the
actual context of whichever source you are looking at for information.
SCANNING
This is a method that helps you to focus your search. By so doing , you
quickly look over the text, following up any clues given to you in the
index or table of content in order to look for the exact information you
need. Scanning is a focus and shorthand form of reading which
involves picking out key words in the text, using these key words as
landmarks to stay focus while reading and saving time by not reading
the whole page in the hope of finding what you want.
Reading texts, numbers, symbols and images can provide you with
information that will help all aspect of your learning. You must make sure
that you collect and record information that is relevant and in a form that
will be useful later. Therefore, once you have located the information you
need, you should read it carefully making sure you understand what is
being conveyed.
NOTE:
Skimming and scanning are not substitute for reading properly, they are
Just techniques to help you find what you need to begin reading quickly.
To read effectively, you have to go back to the beginning or a chapter of
a section in order to get a better idea of what the information is about.
And once you have a clear understanding of the idea you can start
recording/ takenote.
 LETTER WRITING

Effective writing at this level is about using the correct words and expressions
in a way that communicates meaning clearly to everyone who reads your
message. To write effectively you should be able:
• To use a form that suits your information
• Organize your information so that it is clear and consistent
• Make use of grammar, punctuation and spelling are correct
• Use imageries to help describe, explain or clarify ideas or information about
your writing.
There are two types of letter writing.
1. Formal Letter Writing
2. Non formal Letter Writing
Formal letters are used for business purposes. They are the main form of
written communication sent out the organizations, colleges, small businesses,
government institutions and non-governmental organizations.
When used by an institution, a particular “house style” is followed by it
employees. Especially the letter head which contains detailed information
about the sender(institution) such as address, website, phone number, email
address, social media account information etc.
There are three(3) main format of writing formal letters currently used:
• Indented
• Semi-blocked
• Fully blocked
The fully blocked is increasingly the preferred format. The following
example shows the block letter format.
Letter head
………………………………..
Date………………………
Your reference…………………………………………….
Salutation(Dear)………………………………………………
Subject(RE:……………………………………………………)
Paragraphs
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
……………….
Closing(Yours……………………..) Use faithfully with
Dear sir/madam and sincerely with named person.
Open Punctuation
Formal letters increasingly use ”open” punctuation, particularly in the
block
Letter format which speeds up the process of writing. Open punctuation
means some of the punctuations are absent especially for the address,
salutation, Subject and closing phrase of the letter. However only the body
of the letter are restricted to punctuations.
Starting a Letter
Begin with the salutation ‘Dear’ followed by the title of the person you are
writing to and the name.
Here are some common titles:
Mr. Mrs. Master Miss Sir. Madam Rev. Professor. Hon. Ms. Dr.
The title Miss and Master are generally used for children and young
teenagers. Dr. is the abbreviation for Doctor. Rev. is Reverend.
Some people like to be addressed using a particular title and others just
don’t seems to care very much. But as a way of courtesy when writing
always try to get their title correct. Use whatever title they have given in
previous letter or choose title least likely to cause offence.
Dear Sir/Madam is quite a safe way to begin.
Heading a letter
Business letter usually have a heading after the salutation and before the
first paragraph. The heading tells the recipient what the letter is about.
To make it stand out, you could make it bold type and or perhaps underline
it.
Producing the body of the letter
Divide the letter into paragraphs that follows logical structure. Use the first
paragraph to either mention any previous letters or go straight to the point;
and the last to bring the letter to a close. Remember to use the correct
grammar and be concise and coherent when explaining the purpose of your
letter.
Ending a letter
Two endings are common usage:
• Yours faithfully: Use it with Dear Sir/Madam
• Yours sincerely: Use it for a named person, e.g Dear Rev. Joseph Sesay
As for people whom you know fairly well even in business, it may be
appropriate to end with ‘Best wishes’ or ‘Kind regards’
Informal Letters

Informal letters are written to close acquaintances of the writer,

their friends, family, relatives etc. Since they are written to
close relations the letters have an informal and personal tone.
Casual language is used while writing informal letters. And
sometimes the letters may even have an emotional undertone.

Informal letters are mainly used for personal communication.

So they do not have to follow any specific pattern, format or
conventions. They can be written as per the writer’s wishes and
the requirement of the situation. So the letter is written in a
personal fashion in casual unassuming language.
Format of Informal Letter
As we discussed earlier there is no set format when writing an
informal letter.
But there is a general pattern, some conventions that people
usually follow.
We will be looking at this pattern and certain tips on how to write
effective and attractive informal letters.
These can act as guidelines when you are drafting a letter,
they are not hard and fast rules. Let us begin.
Address
The first thing to write is your address, i.e. the address of the writer.
We usually write the address on the left-hand side of the page at
the very top.
The address should be accurate and complete.
Even when writing to close friends or relatives the address must be
written,
so they can reply back to the letter with ease.
If the recipient of the letter is in another country,
do not forget to write your country as well in the address.
Date
Next just below the address we write the date.
This allows the reader to have a reference as to when the address was
written.
He can then relate better to the contents of the letter.
Greeting
Now since you know the person you are writing to, the greeting can be
informal as well. If it is a friend or someone close to your age you can greet
them by their first name, like “Dear Alex”.
If you are writing to your relative like your mother/father/aunt/uncle etc,
you may greet them as such, for example, “Dear Mom”.
And if you are writing to an elder person, someone you respect greatly you
can address them as Mr or Mrs. Like say for example you were writing a
congratulatory letter to your teacher, it can be addressed as “Dear Mrs.
Alex”.
Introduction Paragraph
And now we begin writing the actual letter.
The introductory paragraph sets the tone for the whole letter.
You might begin by asking the recipient about their well being.
Or you may say that you hope the letter finds them in good health and
great spirits. The opening of informal letters should be casual and
comforting.
It must not be formal and direct as in business letters.
Body of the Letter

The letter overall should maintain a friendly tone. But you have to adjust the
language and the wordings according to who you are writing to. With a friend,
you can afford to be very casual and flippant even. But if you are writing to an
elder relative, you must be extremely respectful and considerate.

One way to determine the tonality of your letter is to remember how you talk
to the person in a conversation. And then apply the same syntax and
sentiments to the letter.

Conclusion

In the conclusive paragraph sum up the reason for writing the letter, i.e.
summarize the letter. Say a meaningful and affectionate goodbye to the reader.
And do not forget to invite the reader to write back or reply to your letter. It
shows an intention to keep the conversation going.
Closing /Signature
There is no one way to sign off informal letters. Since they do not
follow a strict format, you may sign off as you please. Some commonly
used phrases are
Lots of Love
Best,
Best Wishes,
Kind Regards,
Kindly,
Pick the one that best suits the occasion and then simply sign your
name below the greeting.
 ESSAY WRITING
An essay is a piece of writing which discusses ideas and concepts in a clear
order.
It is a chance to demonstrate to your tutor that you have fully grasped key
ideas in your subject area, and that you can explain them clearly.
ESSAY WRITING SKILLS:
The Basics
 Answering the question(s)/focusing on the topic(s) set.
 Addressing the relevant learning objectives
 Discussing the ideas covered in your lectures and set reading
 Showing that you understand the material covered
 Presenting an argument that makes sense, supported by evidence
 Sounding objective and taking a balanced view
 Clear writing -It begins with an introduction giving a brief overview of the
essay.
What Does An Essay Looks Like
It begins with an introduction giving a brief overview of the essay.
The main body of the text then explains the ideas in detail.
This part is split into short paragraphs (200-300 words each), each
dealing with a key point.
Finally, the conclusion summarises the main ideas and draws the
conclusions, bringing the essay neatly to a close. ‘thesis statement’.
For example, if your essay topic is play and child development, your
argument could be ‘play is important to child development’, or ‘the
importance of play in child development is not yet fully understood’.
Your argument should be based on your reading on the topic, rather than
a personal opinion or guesswork.
You should read academic books and articles from your reading list (not
just popular books or websites), and make notes on the conclusions
researchers have drawn.
After looking at 3 or 4 recent academic books, you should begin to see
what researchers have found out to date, and base your argument on
this.
How to Write a Good Essay
Firstly, look closely at the question or assignment brief, underline key
words, and think about how they relate to what you have been learning on
your course.
What you write should clearly tackle the brief and learning objectives, and
refer to the key ideas and concepts covered on your course – not just your
personal experience or your own opinions.
If you do not fully understand the ideas, go back to your lecture slides and
notes, and consult key texts on your reading list.
Further reading will give you a clearer idea of what you should write about.
An essay needs to have a clear argument.
What does this mean? Once you have done some initial reading and have
decided on your argument, you can draw up a mind map or a list of ideas
which you think will help support your point of view. Look at these words
and ideas, and imagine you now need to explain the topic to a friend. What
would be the best place to start? What will they need to understand first?
Which points are connected? How would you explain the concepts in more
detail, and show how they fit together? The answers to these questions
should tell you how to order your points into an initial plan or logical
sequence of your ideas, which you can then flesh out and turn into an
essay.
 
 ELEMENTS OF AN ESSAY
There are 4 key elements you can draw on to build up your argument:
• Ideas from academic authors: theories and models put forward by
researchers in academic publications. Make sure you reference them
clearly to avoid plagiarism.
• Research evidence: conclusions drawn from academic research, or
specific data such as figures and statistics. Again, make sure you
reference them.
• Logic: what conclusions reasonably follow from the evidence and the
points you present? For example, if play has been found to improve
hand-eye coordination, and improved coordination contributes to the
overall development of a child, you can logically conclude that play has a
positive impact on child development. If A leads to B, and B leads to C, A
therefore logically leads to C.
A logical sequence makes for a strong argument.
• Critical thinking: what you read while researching your topic may not be
the whole story. Are there any problems with the studies you are looking
at? Was the researcher biased in any way? Thinking critically means
evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the evidence, and
considering any counter-arguments.
TYPES OF ESSAYS
Argumentative or Persuasive Essay
An argumentative or persuasive essay takes a strong position on a topic
through the use of supporting evidence.
It requires thorough research and investigation of the topic includes a clear,
strong thesis statement that is debatable.
Considers and refutes alternative arguments with cited evidence, statistics,
and facts uses fair, objective language with a well-rounded understanding
of the topic.
Comparative Essays
A comparative essay requires comparison and/or contrast of at least two
or more items. Ita ttempts to build new connections or note new similarities
or differences about the topic(s).
Typically focuses on items of the same class, i.e. two political systems 
(i.e. democracy or communism) or two theories (i.e. behaviorism versus
constructivism).
Expository Essays
The purpose of an expository essay is to describe or explain a specific topic.
It:
Uses factual information
Is written from the third-person point of view
Does not require a strong, formal argument
Narrative Essays
A narrative essay tells a story or describes an event in order to illustrate
a key point or idea.
It uses descriptive and sensory information to communicate to the reader
Are often subjective rather than objective
Usually written from the first-person or third-person point of view.
May be entertaining or informative
 Expository Essay
The Rise of Teenage Gangs and Negative Consequences
 
Teenagers constantly look for the place they belong. Isn’t it everyone’s
dream to belong to a certain group of people, to find like-minded individuals
and feel accepted? Unfortunately, a vast majority of teenagers take a wrong
turn and get lost on their path to acceptance. It is not uncommon for them
to join teen gangs feeling like their members understand them, but that is
far from the truth. The rise of teenage gangs is a major problem nowadays.
But, how serious this problem really is? Consequences of gang membership
can scar a person for life in several ways.
Youth, teenage, or juvenile gang is defined as an organized group of
adolescents and/or young adults who rely on group intimidation and violence
to commit criminal acts with the purpose to gain power, recognition, and
control. The rise of teenage gangs is perfectly explained in a study published
in the Journal of Adolescent Health wherein researchers discovered there
were 1,059,000 youth gang members in the United States in 2010.
Moreover, on a yearly basis 401,000 juveniles join gangs.
The primary reason why this staggering number of gang members goes
unnoticed is due to the fact that they may not conform to popular perceptions
of teen gang demographics.
Another potential reason why the total number of gangs and gang members
keeps increasing is because a great majority of crimes they commit usually
goes unreported. As a result, government officials find it difficult to gather
exact data about this growing issue. Youth gang members primarily focus on
their peers, bully them, and force them to say nothing in order to avoid
harsher consequences.
When discussing the issue of youth crime groups, one must wonder how one
decides to join them.
Risk factors that enhance a teenager’s odds of joining a gang include drug or
alcohol abuse, negative influences, peer pressure, a strong desire for
recognition and belonging, lack of parental supervision, and limited
attachment to the community.
Most adults do not take this problem seriously enough and, usually, consider
it as just another phase teenagers go through. However, the American
Journal of Public Health published a research showing that gang membership
in the adolescence has severe consequences in adulthood, long after a
person leaves the gang.
Besides higher likelihood of criminal activities, people who were gang
members in the adolescence also experienced financial issues and were in
poor health in adulthood.
While most teenagers have a strong urge to feel accepted by their peers,
others seek the solace and comfort or escape from their difficult family life
in gangs. Although the current data shows the staggering number of gang
members it is assumed the problem could be even more severe as most of
them do not fit into the gang demographics and many crimes are not
reported.
Finally, there is a growing need for the entire society to take necessary
measures and work on this issue.
If not, the consequences could be far more severe.
 
 
Bibliography
 
Gang Membership Between Ages 5 and 17 Years in the United States
Pyrooz, David C. et al.
Journal of Adolescent Health, Volume 56 , Issue 4 , 414 – 419
Long-Term Consequences of Adolescent Gang Membership for –
Adult Functioning
Amanda B. Gilman, Karl G. Hill, and J. David Hawkins
American Journal of Public Health 2014 104, 5, 938-945