Internet

• Internet is wide network of computers and is

open for all.
• Internet itself contains a large number of
intranets.
• The number of users who use internet is
Unlimited.
• The Visitors traffic is unlimited. 5. Internet
contains different source of information and is
available for all.
 Intranet
• Intranet is also a network of computers
designed for a specific group of users.
• Intranet can be accessed from Internet but
with restrictions.
• The number of users is limited.
• The traffic allowed is also limited.
• Intranet contains only specific group
information.
 Extranet
• An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and
the public telecommunication system to securely share part of a
business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors,
partners, customers, or other businesses.
• An extranet is a website that allows controlled access to partners,
vendors and suppliers or an authorized set of customers – normally
to a subset of the information accessible from an organization's
intranet.
• The major difference between the two, however, is that an intranet
is typically used internally. While an extranet allows businesses to
communicate with clients and vendors, an intranet allows employees
and colleagues to work with each other in a virtual space — no
outside parties are involved.
Similarities between Internet and Intranet

• Intranet uses the internet protocols such as

TCP/IP and FTP.
• Intranet sites are accessible via the web
browser in a similar way as websites in the
internet. However, only members of Intranet
network can access intranet hosted sites.
• In Intranet, own instant messengers can be
used as similar to yahoo messenger/gtalk over
the internet.
Differences between Internet and Intranet

• Internet is general to PCs all over the world

whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs.
• Internet provides a wider and better access to
websites to a large population, whereas
Intranet is restricted.
• Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can
be safely privatized as per the need.
 Application of Internet
• Traditional core applications:
– Email
– News
– Remote Login
– File Transfer

• The killer application:

– world wide web(www)
• New applications:
– Videoconferencing
– Telephony
– P2P applications
– Internet Broadcast
Overview of OSI Reference Model
7 Layers:
• The Physical Layer:
– To activate, maintain and deactivate the physical connection.
– To define data rates needed for transmission.
– To decide whether the transmission is simplex, half duplex or full
duplex.

• Data Link Layer:

– Framing: divide stream of bits into manageable data units called frames.
– Flow control: manages the data sending and data receiving rate.
– Error control: error detection and retransmission of damaged and lost
frames.
– Access control: Which device controls the network connection at any time.
• Network Layer:
– To route the signals through various channels to the other end.
– Packetizing of data segments received from transport layer.
– Fragmentation of packets so that resulting pieces can pass
through different networks.
• Transport Layer:
– Multiplexing and demultiplexing.
– Segmentation of the data unit.
– Congestion control.
• Session Layer:
– Synchronization of conversation between two different
applications.
– Allows a process to add checkpoints to a stream of data.
• Presentation Layer:
– Delivers message in such a form that the receiving system
will understand it and use it.
– Data Encryption and Compression.
• Application Layer:
– It provides User Interface and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management and other type of distributed
information services.
 Overview of TCP/IP Model
4 Layers:
• Host-To-Network Layer/Network Access Layer:
– It deals with physical transmission of data through different network
medium such as optical fiber, twisted pair or coaxial cables .
– Protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring, X.25, Frame Relay etc are
used.

• Internet Layer:
– It defines packet format called Ip Packet and protocol called internet
protocol.
– Other protocols used by internet layer are ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol), RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol), ICMP(Internet
control message protocol) etc.
• Transport Layer:
– TCP( Transmisson Control Protocol)
• Reliable and Connection oriented .
• Transmission of byte stream without any errors.
– UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
• Unreliable and Connectionless
• May contain minute errors in byte stream.

• Application Layer:
– Protocols such as TELNET, FTP, SMTP etc.
– DNS
 Growth of world wide web(www)
• World Wide Web (WWW), byname the Web, the leading information
retrieval service of the internet . The Web gives users access to a vast
array of documents that are connected to each other by means of
hypertext or hypermedia links—i.e. hyperlinks, electronic connections
that link related pieces of information in order to allow a user easy access
to them. Hypertext allows the user to select a word or phrase from text
and thereby access other documents that contain additional information
pertaining to that word or phrase. Hypermedia documents feature links
to images, sounds, animations, and movies. The Web operates within the
Internet’s basic client-server format; server are computer programs that
store and transmit documents to other computers on the network when
asked to, while clients are programs that request documents from a
server as the user asks for them. Browser software allows users to view
the retrieved documents.
 www History
• The development of the World Wide Web was begun in 1989 by Tim
Berners-Lee and his colleagues at CERN, an international scientific
organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. They created a Protocol, Hyper
Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) which standardized communication between
servers and clients. Their text-based Web browser was made available for
general release in January 1992. The World Wide Web gained rapid
acceptance with the creation of a Web browser called Mosaic, which was
developed in the United States by Marc Andreessen and others at the
National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of
Illinois and was released in September 1993. Mosaic allowed people using
the Web to use the same sort of “point-and-click” graphical manipulations
that had been available in personal computers for some years. In April 1994
Andreessen cofounded whose Netscape Navigator be Netscape
communications corporation came the dominant Web browser soon after
its release in December 1994. BookLink Technologies’ Internet Works, the
first browser with tabs, in which a user could visit another Website without
opening an entirely new window, debuted that same year. By the mid-1990s
the World Wide Web had millions of active users.
 Network Protocol
• A protocol is an agreement about
communication between two or more entities.
• It specifies
– Format of messages
– Meaning of messages
– Rules for exchange
– Procedures for handling problems
 ISP
• An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization
that provides access to the Internet.
• Access ISPs directly connect clients to the Internet
using copper wires, wireless or fiberoptic connections.
• Hosting ISPs are a kind of colocation center that
leases server space to smaller businesses and other
people. Provides email, FTP and web-hosting services.
• Transit ISPs provide large amounts of bandwidth for
connecting hosting ISPs to access ISPs
• Tier 1 ISPs
• Tier 1 ISPs are higher level ISPs whose coverage area is international/national
and treat each other as equal.
• Tier 1 providers can interconnect privately or using Network Access
Point(NAP)
• examples: MCI, Sprint, A&T etc.
Tier 2 ISPs
• “Tier-2” ISPs are often Regional ISPs.
•They Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2
ISPs
•Tier 2 ISPs pays tier 1 ISPs for connectivity.
•Tier2 ISPs also peer privately with each other or interconnect
at NAP.
Tier 3 ISPs
• “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs are customers of higher tier ISPs.
• last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)
 Internet Backbone Networks

• Backbone networks are high speed networks that link an

organization’s LANs and also provide connections to other
backbones, MANs, WANs and the Internet.
• Internet Backbone refers to the principal data routes between
large, strategically interconnected networks and core
networks on the internet.
• These data routes are hosted by commercial, government,
academic and other high capacity network centers.
• Internet Service Provider (ISPs) are example that participate
internet backbone exchange of traffic.
Internet Backbone Infrastructure:
Optical fiber
• Optical fiber technologies are the prime choices for
transmitting the enormous bandwidth required by the traffic
growth in backbone networks.
• The backbone of the world’s information infrastructure is now
preponderantly composed of fiber optic cables
• We must have a light source in order to send the data. It
sends a ray of light for each 1 bit, and no light for a 0 bit.
• We must have a detector to detect the light signal. The
detector emits an electric pulse for each light ray it
detects.
• The slowest part of the system is the conversion that
happens at either end.
Composition
• Consist extremely thin cylinder glass called Core
• Surrounded by a concentric layer known as cladding
• Each glass strand passes signals in only one direction, a
cable includes two strands in separate jackets.
 Submarine cables
• A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea
bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication
signals across stretches of ocean.
• The first submarine communications cables, laid in the 1850s,
carried telegraphy traffic.
• Subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic,
then data communications traffic.
• Modern cables use optical fiber technology to carry digital data,
which includes telephone, internet and private data traffic.
• As of 2010, submarine cables link all the world's continents
except Antarctica.
 Teleports
• A telecommunication port or more commonly teleport is a
satellite ground station with multiple parallel antennas that
functions as a hub connecting a satellite or geocentric orbital
network with a terrestrial telecommunications network.
• Teleports may provide various broadcasting services among
other telecommunications functions, such as uploading
computer programs or issuing a commands over an uplink to
a satellite.
 Satellites
• Two Stations on Earth want to communicate through radio
broadcast but are too far away to use conventional means.
• The two stations can use a satellite as a relay station for their
communication
• One Earth Station sends a transmission to the satellite. This is
called a Uplink.
• The satellite Transponder converts the signal and sends it
down to the second earth station. This is called a Downlink.
Types: 1) LEO(Low Earth Orbit)
2)MEO(Medium Earth Orbit)
3)GEO(Geostationary Earth Orbit)
 Microwave
• They range from 1 GHz to 300 GHz
• Unidirectional => Antennas must be aligned
• Propagation is line-of-sight (earth curvature is a problem)
• Cannot penetrate walls
• Higher data range than radio waves
• Part of the spectrum is regulated form authorities
• Application
o long-distance telephone communication
o mobile phones
o television broadcast
 The Network Edge
• Computers and other devices are connected
at the edge of the network.
• These computers are called as hosts or end
systems and routers are called as edge
routers.
 The Network Core
• The mesh of routers that interconnect the Internet's
end systems.
 Circuit Switching ,packet switching and
Virtual circuit switching
• There are two fundamental approaches towards building a
network core: circuit switching and packet switching.
• Switching is the process of forwarding message(packets)
coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination.
Circuit Switched Network:
– a type of network where the communications path between end
devices (nodes) must be set up before they can communicate.
– There is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travel and
no other data is permitted.
– It was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable
example of circuit switching.
• Advantages:
– It is suitable for long continuous transmission, since a continuous
transmission route is established, that remains throughout the
conversation.
– The dedicated path ensures a steady data rate of communication.
– No intermediate delays are found once the circuit is established. So,
they are suitable for real time communication of both voice and data
transmission.

• Disadvantages:
– Bandwidth requirement is high even in cases of low data volume.
– There is underutilization of system resources. Once resources are
allocated to a particular connection, they cannot be used for other
connections.
– Time required to establish connection may be high
 Packet Switching
• Packet switching is a connectionless network switching technique.
• the message is divided and grouped into a number of units called packets
that are individually routed from the source to the destination.
• There is no need to establish a dedicated circuit for communication.

Process : Each packet in a packet switching technique has two parts: a header
and a payload. The header contains the addressing information of the
packet and is used by the intermediate routers to direct it towards its
destination. The payload carries the actual data. A packet is transmitted as
soon as it is available in a node, based upon its header information. The
packets of a message are not routed via the same path. So, the packets in
the message arrives in the destination out of order. It is the responsibility of
the destination to reorder the packets in order to retrieve the original
message.
• Advantages:
– Delay in delivery of packets is less, since packets are sent as soon as they are
available.
– Switching devices don’t require massive storage, since they don’t have to store
the entire messages before forwarding them to the next node.
– Data delivery can continue even if some parts of the network faces link failure.
Packets can be routed via other paths.
– It allows simultaneous usage of the same channel by multiple users.
– It ensures better bandwidth usage as a number of packets from multiple
sources can be transferred via the same link.

• Disadvantages:
– They are unsuitable for applications that cannot afford delays in
communication like high quality voice calls.
– Packet switching high installation costs.
– They require complex protocols for delivery.
– Network problems may introduce errors in packets, delay in delivery of packets
or loss of packets.
fig: Packet Switching Network
 Two approaches for Packet switching

1) Datagram Packet Switching(Connectionless

packet switching)
• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a
datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and
switch(router) uses this information to forward the packet to the
correct destination.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct
order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the
packets.
2) Virtual Circuit Switching(Connection oriented
packet switching)
– In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned
route is established before the messages are sent.
– the data stream is transferred over a packet switched
network, in such a way that it seems to the user that
there is a dedicated path from the sender to the
receiver.
– Call request and call accept packets are used to
establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
– In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a
logical connection.
• Lets understand through a diagram below:

• In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1
and 2 are the nodes.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
• When a route is established, data will be transferred.
• After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.
• If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.
Delay and loss in Packet switched Network
• When a package is sent from one host (source) to another host
(destination), it travels through a series of nodes and routers.
Travelling from one of these nodes/routers and on to a subsequent
node/router, the packet will suffer from different types of delay.
The most notable and important delays are the processing delay,
queuing delay, transmission delay, and propagation delay.

Processing delay:
The time used to examine the packet’s header and determine where to
direct it, and check for bit-level errors in the packet that occurred in
transmission is called the processing delay. There are also several other
factors that affects this delay, for example: The need to check for bit-level
errors that has occurred during transmission to the router.
Queuing Delay:
The queuing delay is the time it takes for the packet to be
transmitted onto the link. Naturally; the length of this time is
defined by the number of packets that was added to the queue
prior to this packet. It is also very important that the rate of
incoming packets does not exceed the rate of outgoing packets. If
this happens, the delay will approach infinity, and the transmission
could suffer packet losses.
Transmission Delay :
Packets are commonly transmitted in a first-come-first-
serve manner, and it is realistic to assume that a packet will
not be transmitted until all prior packets are transmitted. The
transmission delay is the amount of time used to transmit
(push) all of the packets bits from the queue and into the link.
Propagation delay:
As the packet does not magically appear straight away on router B after it has
been pushed into the link from router A, there is of course a propagation delay.
This is the time required to propagate from the beginning of the link and to router
B. The speed of the propagation heavily depends on the physical medium of the
link (fiber optics, twisted pair, copper wire, etc).
Packet Loss:
Packet loss occurs when one or more packets of data travelling across a computer
network fail to reach their destination.
In our discussions above, we have assumed that the queue is capable of holding
an infinite number of packets. In reality a queue preceding a link has finite
capacity, although the queuing capacity greatly depends on the switch design and
cost. Because the queue capacity is a finite, packet delays do not really approach
infinity as the traffic intensity approaches one. Instead, a packet can arrive to find
a full queue. With no place to store such a packet, a router will drop that packet;
that is, the packet will be lost. From an end-system viewpoint, this will look like a
packet having been transmitted into the network core, but never emerging from
the network at the destination. The fraction of lost packets increases as the traffic
intensity increases. Therefore, performance at a node is often measured not only
in terms of delay, but also in terms of the probability of packet loss.
 The access network may be defined as the physical link that connects an
end system to its edge router. An edge router is the first router met while
travelling from one end system to the other. Hence an access network provides
the infrastructure to connect the costumers in a network.
Residential access:
These are the access networks that connect home and systems into the network.
Example of home end system is pc. The residential access refers to connecting home
End system to an edge router. The home modem converts the digital output of the pc
into an analog form suitable for the transmission over telephone lines. At the other
end, a modem is used to convert these analog signals back to digital ones.
 HFC Network

Fig: Hybrid Fiber Coaxial Cable(HFC) Network

• The HFC network is the improved version of cable network . This is the
second generation of the cable networks and it uses a combination of
fiber optic and coaxial cable for the transmission of signal. HFC cable
network is a bidirectional network which is its biggest advantages.
• The transmission medium from the head end to fiber node is optical fiber
cable and from fiber node to user residence is the coaxial cable.
• The bandwidth of HFC network is approximately from 5 MHz to 750 MHz.
In various companies or on the university campus, the LANs are used for connecting an
End system to the edge router. Ethernet technology is commonly used which operates at
10 Mbps or 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps and uses either twisted pair copper wire or coaxial
Cable for connecting a number of end systems with each other and with the edge router
Like HFC, the ethernet also uses a shared medium( coaxial plus optical fiber cable).
 /Mobile Access Network

3G ~ 7.2 Mbps
4G ~ 100 Mbps
5G ~ 10Gbps
 Physical Media
Twisted Pair Copper Wire
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors(copper), each with
its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
• One of the wire is used to carry signals to receiver, and the
other is used only as a ground reference.
• A signal is usually carried as the difference in voltage between
the two wires in the pair. This provides better immunity to
external noise because the noise tends to affect both wire the
same, leaving the differential voltage unchanged.
• Frequency range for twisted pair cable is 100Hz to 5MHz.
• Two types :
– Unshielded twisted pair(UTP)
UTP contains no shielding and is more susceptible to external
noise but is the most frequently used because it is inexpensive
and easier to install. Eg. Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a and Cat7
– Shielded twisted pair(STP)
STP cable contains an outer conductive shield that is electrically
grounded to insulate the signals from external electrical noise.
STP also uses inner foil shields to protect each wire pair from
noise generated by the other pairs. Expensive than UTP.eg. IBM
STP-A
Coaxial Cable:
• Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency range than those in
twisted pair cable.
• It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire (usually
copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is in turn encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This
outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.
• Categories are RG-59, RG-58 and RG-11.
Fiber Optics
• Optical fiber is a cylindrical waveguide system
through which the optical wave propagate.
• It consists of 3 main parts: core cladding and
jacket.

An optical fiber is a dielectric (non conductor of electricity)

waveguide made of glass or plastic.
Based on mode of transmission
1. Single mode optical fiber:
1. It is used to transmit one signal per fiber.
2. They have small core(9 microns in diameter) and
transmit infra-red light from laser.
3. Light travels through core without any reflections.
4. High performance, very high speed, large bandwidth.
2. Multimode optical fiber:
1. It is used to transmit many signal per fiber.
2. Large core(62.5 micros in diameter) and transmits infrared
lights from LED.
3. They are not suitable for large distance communication due to
dispersion and attenuation of the signal.
4. Less costly, easier to manufacture.
• Two types based on refractive index:
1. step-index optical fiber
1. In step index fiber, the core and cladding has their
uniform refractive index.
2. The light ray cross the fiber axis during every reflections
at the core cladding boundary.
2. Graded index optical fiber
1. In graded index optical fiber, the refractive index of core
gradually decreases from the centre towards the core
cladding interface. The cladding has the uniform
refractive index.
2. The light ray do not cross the fiber axis at any time and
are propagating around the fiber axis in helical or spiral
manner.
Terrestrial Radio Channels:
• Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that are transmitted
in all the direction of free space.
• Radio waves are omni directional i.e. they are propagated in
all directions.
• In terrestrial Radio channels, the sending and receiving
antenna are not aligned I.e the wave sent by the sending
antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
– Eg. FM radio, Television etc.
Advantages: -
--Radio wave cover a large area and they can penetrate the walls.
--Provides higher transmission rate.
Satellite Radio Channel:
• As like terrestrial radio channel, satellite radio channel also
uses radio waves for data transmission.
• The satellite's signals are broadcast nationwide, across a much
wider geographical area than terrestrial radio stations.
• A satellite radio service works by transmitting its signal from
a ground-based station to one or more satellites orbiting the
Earth.
• The satellites automatically bounce the signal back to all the
radio receivers on the ground.
• Using the antenna, receiver picks up the signal, decodes the
data stream in the signal and converts it into multiple
channels.
 Assignment
1. What is intranet? What are the similarities and
difference between internet and intranet?
2. Differentiate between OSI reference model and
TCP/IP reference model?
3. What is network core? How a message
transmitted in a network core? Explain in detail.
4. How an end system is connected to edge
router? Explain in detail.
5. Explain why fiber optics is the future of data
transmission?