Battery-Components

• A battery is a device consisting of one or • Series and parallel combination

more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical of battery
devices such as flashlights, mobile phones,
and electric cars.
• When a battery is supplying electric power, its
positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode.
 Battery-Components
CONTAINER
• Components • Must be resistant to corrosion from both
inside and outside
1. Container • Should be stable to chemical attack by the
electrolyte, active materials and the
2. Electrolyte environment at the operating temperature
• Must possess required mechanical strength
3. Electrode/ • Light in weight
electroactive • Cheaper in price
• Simple methods of sealing
materials • Alkaline batteries- steel
4. Separators • Acid batteries: PP, hard rubber
• Dry/ Leclanche cell- metal- on of the active
5. Current Collector material- zinc
Seperator
• Should be stable to chemical attack by the
electrolyte, active materials and the
environment at the operating temperature
• The membrane must possess the optimal
qualities of wettability, selectivivity, resistivity
and flexibility
• The cost
• Sepeartor for Ni/Cd- thin plastic pins
• Sintered plate cell- 1-3 layers of nylon/ cellulose
based felt reinforced for vented cells membrane
• Microporous (pore size: 0.01-0.1µm)
macroporous (pore size: 30-70µm)sheets of
plastics[ porosity: 50-80% and resistance 0.05
-0.5 Ω cm2]
Examples
• Microporous PE is used for Pb Acid car batteries
• Sodium β–alumina for Na/S battery
Current Collector
• Should be stable to chemical attack by
the electrolyte, active materials and the
environment at the operating
temperature
Current collector are-
• Usually a metal grid or sheet
• Provide a conducting path through the paste
• Minimize the resistance of battery
• Act as a physical support to active mass
Current Collector are now designed to
minimize the weight
Very thin metal sheets or expanded metal is
used as Correct collectors
Carbon powder is added in the paste to
improve conductivity
• Electrolyte
• Selection depend on electrode
reactions
• Concentration is important as it
controls
• Plate potential
• Resistance
• Viscosity
• Rate of diffusion
• Difference in concentration of
species between inside and out side
of the pores of active materials
1. Weight of electrolyte – to minimize
2. Spacing between electrodes must
be small ti minimize battery
resistance
• Active Materials
• Electro active materials should be readily
available at the sites of electron transfer
and must be present in large quantities
• Electro active materials are generally
solid or paste form
• Intimate contact and high area surface
between active materials and the
electrolyte is essential
• Active materials must be be in the form
of planar electrodes or porous electrode
• Active Materials
•
 Battery - Characteristics
8. Temperature Dependence
CHARACTERISTICS 9. Service Life
1. Voltage 10. Physical Requirements
2. Current 11. Charge/ Discharge rate*
3. Capacity 12. Cycle life*
4. Discharge curve 13. Cost *
5. Energy Density 14. Ability to deep discharge
6. Specific Energy Density 15. Application requirements
7. Power Density 16. Service condition
17. Shelf life
• The term “voltage” in a battery
refers to the difference in electric
potential between the positive and
negative terminals of a battery. A
greater difference in potential
results in a greater voltage.
OCV = Ec –Ea
PD= Ec – Ea- ƞc- ƞa- IR2
The open circuit voltage (Voc )
occurs when there is no current
passing through the cell. V (at I=0) =
Voc
To read the open circuit voltage from
the graph, locate the point on the
voltage axis where the current is
zero.
Current:
A flow of charge is known as a current. Batteries put out
direct current.
With direct current, the charge flows only in one
direction.
• An electric current, which is a flow of charge, occurs
when there is a potential difference. For a current to
flow also requires a complete circuit, which means the
flowing charge has to be able to get back to where it
starts. Current (I) is measured in amperes (A), and is
the amount of charge flowing per second.
current : I = q / t, with units of A = C / s
• When current flows through wires in a circuit, the
moving charges are electrons.
• When a battery or power supply sets up a difference in
potential between two parts of a wire, an electric field
is created and the electrons respond to that field.
• This random motion of electrons in a field acquires net
velocity, the drift velocity. Because electrons are
negative charges, the direction of the drift velocity is
opposite to the electric field.
Capacity
The theoretical capacity of a
battery is the
quantity of electricity involved
in the electro-chemical
reaction. It is denoted Q and is
given by:
Q=xnF
where x = number of moles of
reaction,
n = number of electrons
transferred per mole of reaction
and F = Faraday's constant
The capacity is usually given in terms of mass,
not the number of moles:
Q=nFMr
where Mr = Molecular Mass. This gives the capacity in units
of Ampere-hours per gram (Ah/g).
In practice, the full battery capacity could never
be realised, as there is a significant weight
contribution from non-reactive components such
as
binders & conducting particles, separators &
electrolytes
and current collectors & substrates as well as
packaging.
Typical values range from 0.26 Ah/g for Pb to
26.59 Ah/g for H2.
 Specific energy density
• The specific energy density is the energy
Energy density that can be derived per unit weight of the
cell (or sometimes per unit weight of the
• The energy density is the active electrode material). It is the product
energy that can be derived of the specific capacity and the operating
voltage in one full discharge cycle. Both the
peer unit volume of the current and the voltage may vary within a
weight of the cell. discharge cycle and thus the specific energy
derived is calculated by integrating the
product of current and voltage over time.
Power density The discharge time is related to the
maximum and minimum voltage threshold
• The power density is the and is dependent upon the state of
power that can be derived per availability of the active materials and/or
the avoidance of an irreversible state for a
unit weight of the cell (W/kg) rechargeable battery.
Temperature dependence
• The rate of the reaction in the cell will be
temperature dependant according to
theories of kinetics. The internal
resistance also varies with temperature;
low temperatures give higher internal
resistance. At very low temperatures the
electrolyte may freeze giving a lower
voltage as ion movement is impeded. At
very high temperatures the chemicals
may decompose, or there may be enough
energy available to activate unwanted,
reversible reactions, reducing the
capacity.
The rate of decrease of voltage with
increasing discharge will also be higher at
lower temperatures, as will the capacity-
this is illustrated by the following graph:
Service life
• The battery cycle life for a rechargeable battery is
defined as the number of charge/recharge cycles a
secondary battery can perform before its capacity
falls to 80% of what it originally was. This is typically
between 500 and 1200 cycles.
• The battery shelf life is the time a battery can be
stored inactive before its capacity falls to 80%. The
reduction in capacity with time is caused by the
depletion of the active materials by undesired
reactions within the cell.
• Batteries can also be subjected to premature death
by:
• Over-charging
• Over-discharging
• Short circuiting
• Drawing more current than it was designed to
produce
• Subjecting to extreme temperatures
• Subjecting to physical shock or vibrations
Physical requirements Charge/Discharge cycle
This includes • There are many aspects of the
cycle that need consideration,
• the geometry of the cell,
such as:
• The size, • Voltage necessary to charge
• The weight and Time necessary to charge
• The shape and • Availability of charging source
• The location of the terminals. • Potential safety hazards during
charge/discharge
Cycle life
Cost
• The cycle life of a rechargeable
• This includes the initial cost of
battery is the number of
discharge/charge cycles it can the battery itself as well as the
undergo before its capacity falls cost of charging and maintaining
to 80%. the battery.
Ability to deep discharge Application requirements
• There is a logarithmic relationship • The battery must be sufficient for
between the depth of discharge the intended application. This
and the life of a battery, thus the means that it must be able to
life of a battery can be significantly produce the right current with
increased if it is not fully the right voltage. It must have
discharged; for example, a mobile sufficient capacity, energy and
phone battery will last 5-6 times power. It should also not exceed
longer if it is only discharged 80% the requirements of the
before recharging. application by too much, since
• Special deep discharge batteries this is likely to result in
are available for applications unnecessary cost; it must give
where this might be necessary sufficient performance for the
lowest possible price.
 Battery- History
1946 Neumann: sealed NiCd • Battery Nomenclature
1960s Alkaline, rechargeable NiCd
1970s Lithium, sealed lead acid
1990 Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) Duracell battery 9V cell
6 V dry battery
1991 Lithium ion
1992 Rechargeable alkaline TWO CELL REAL BATTERY ANOTHER
1999 Lithium ion polymer BATTERY
 • Zinc is (much) more easily oxidized
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
than Copper
 Zn 2   2e 
Zn  ( I .)
e
Cu 2   2e  
 Cu ( II .)
consumer

salt bridge • Maintain equilibrium electron

densities
• Add copper ions in solution to Half Cell II
• Salt bridge only carries negative
oxidation reduction
at zinc at copper ions
ZnSO4 CuSO4
anode cathode
• This is the limiting factor for current
Half Cell I Half Cell II flow
• Pick a low-resistance bridge
• Primary (Disposable) Batteries
• Zinc carbon (flashlights, toys)
• Heavy duty zinc chloride (radios,
recorders)
• Alkaline (all of the above)
• Lithium (photoflash)
• Silver, mercury oxide (hearing aid,
watches)
• Zinc air
• Standard Zn-C battery-
Characteristics
• Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Zinc, ammonium chloride aqueous
electrolyte
• Features
+ Inexpensive, widely available
• Inefficient at high current drain
• Poor discharge curve (sloping)
• Poor performance at low
temperatures
Heavy Duty Zinc Chloride Batteries Standard Alkaline Battery
• Chemistry • Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+) Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Zinc chloride aqueous electrolyte Potassium hydroxide aqueous
• Features (compared to zinc electrolyte
carbon) • Features
+ Better resistance to leakage + 50-100% more energy than carbon
+ Better at high current drain zinc
+ Low self-discharge (10 year shelf
+ Better performance at low
life)
temperature
± Good for low current (< 400mA),
long-life use
• Poor discharge curve
Lithium Manganese battery Secondary(Storage/ Rechargeable
• Chemistry Batteries)
Lithium (-), manganese dioxide (+) • Nickel cadmium
Alkali metal salt in organic solvent • Nickel metal hydride
electrolyte
• Alkaline
• Features
+ High energy density • Lithium ion
+ Long shelf life (20 years at 70°C) • Lithium ion polymer
+ Capable of high rate discharge • Lead acid
• Expensive
 • Over 1000 cycles (if properly
• Ni-Cd Battery
maintained)
• Chemistry • Fast, simple charge (even after
Cadmium (-), nickel hydroxide (+)
long storage)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous
C/3 to 4C with temperature
electrolyte
monitoring
• Features • Self discharge
+ Rugged, long life, economical
10% in first day, then 10%/mo
+ Good high discharge rate (for
Trickle charge (C/16) will maintain
power tools)
charge
• Relatively low energy density
• Toxic • Memory effect
Overcome by 60% discharges to
1.1V
Ni-Metal Hydride battery
NiMH Charging
• Chemistry
LaNi5, TiMn2, ZrMn2 (-), nickel • Less prone to memory than NiCd
hydroxide (+) • Shallow discharge better than
Potassium hydroxide aqueous deep
electrolyte Degrades after 200-300 deep cycles
• Features Need regular full discharge to avoid
+ Higher energy density (40%) than crystals
NiCd • Self discharge 1.5-2.0 more than
+ Nontoxic NiCd
• Reduced life, discharge rate (0.2-
0.5C) • Longer charge time than for
• More expensive (20%) than NiCd NiCd
To avoid overheating
• Lead Acid battery • Lead Acid Charging
• Low self-discharge
• Chemistry • 40% in one year (three months for NiCd)
Lead
• No memory
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
• Cannot be stored when discharged
• Features • Limited number of full discharges
+ Least expensive • Danger of overheating during charging
+ Durable • Ratings
• Low energy density CCA: cold cranking amps (0F for 30 sec)
• Toxic RC: reserve capacity (minutes at 10.5v,
25amp)
• Deep discharge batteries
Used in golf carts, solar power systems
2-3x RC, 0.5-0.75 CCA of car batteries
Several hundred cycles
• Li Ion battery
• Chemistry • Li Ion Charging
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese • 300 cycles
(+)
Nonaqueous electrolyte • 50% capacity at 500 cycles
• Features
+ 40% more capacity than NiCd
+ Flat discharge (like NiCd)
+ Self-discharge 50% less than NiCd
• Expensive
• Li Ion Polymer Battery Type Capacity (mAh) Density (Wh/kg)
• Chemistry
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese Alkaline AA 2850 124
(+)
Rechargeable 1600 80
Nonaqueous electrolyte
NiCd AA 750 41
• Features
+ Slim geometry, flexible shape, light NiMH AA 1100 51
weight Lithium ion 1200 100
+ Potentially lower cost (but
currently expensive) Lead acid 2000 30
• Lower energy density, fewer cycles
than Li-ion
Type Voltage Peak Optimal Type Cycles (to 80%) Charge Discharge
Drain Drain
time per month
Alkaline 1.5 0.5C < 0.2C
NiCd 1.25 20C 1C Alkaline (50%) 3-10h 0.3%
Nickel metal 1.25 5C < 0.5C NiCd 1500 1h 20%
Lead acid 2 5C 0.2C NiMH 300-500 2-4h 30%
Lithium ion 3.6 2C < 1C Li-ion 500-1000 2-4h 10%
Polymer 300-500 2-4h 10%
Lead acid 200-2000 8-16h 5%